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endocrine system Flashcards

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1
Q

what are the two pharmacological effects of glucocorticoids?

A

anti-inflammatory effects, immunosuppressant effects

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2
Q

describe the pharmacodynamics of glucocorticoids?

A

they prevent the formation of key chemicals that mediate inflammation

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3
Q

in which three ways does glucagon work to increase blood glucose levels?

A

increases glycogenolysis (breakdown of glycogen into glucose in liver and skeletal muscle)

increases gluconeogenesis (synthesis and release of glucose by the liver)

increases ketogenesis (breakdown of fat to fatty acids in adipose tissue)

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4
Q

what does insulin do?

A

allows glucose transport into cells

increases rate of glucose utilisation/ATP generation

inhibits hepatic glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis

increases conversion of glucose into glycogen for storage in liver and skeletal muscles

increases amino acid absorption and protein synthesis

increases triglyceride synthesis in adipose tissue

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5
Q

where is glucagon released from?

A

alpha cells in the pancreatic islets

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6
Q

what kind of hormone is glucagon?

A

peptide hormone

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7
Q

what controls the release of glucagon?

A

decreased blood glucose levels

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8
Q

what is the function of cortisol?

A

anti-inflammatory; affects glucose metabolism

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9
Q

where is cortisol released from?

A

the adrenal cortex

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10
Q

what controls the release of cortisol?

A

stimulated by ACTH

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11
Q

what kind of hormone is cortisol?

A

steroid hormone (glucocorticoid)

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12
Q

what hormone is released by adipose tissue, and what does it do?

A

leptin targets the hypothalamus to suppress the appetite

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13
Q

what are the cells of the pancreatic islets and what type of hormones does each produce?

A

alpha cells: glucagon
beta cells: insulin
delta cells: GH-IH
f cells: pancreatic polypeptide (PP)

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14
Q

what are the four functions of adrenaline?

A

increased cardiac activity
increased blood pressure
increased glycogen breakdown
increased blood glucose levels

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15
Q

where is adrenaline released from?

A

the adrenal medulla

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16
Q

what controls the release of adrenaline?

A

sympathetic innervation by the hypothalmus

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17
Q

what kind of hormone is adrenaline?

A

amine hormone

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18
Q

what is the function of aldosterone?

A

increases the reabsorption of Na+ and water

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19
Q

where is aldosterone released from?

A

the adrenal cortex

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20
Q

what controls the release of aldosterone?

A

angiotensin II; also elevated blood K+ or fall in blood Na+

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21
Q

what inhibits the release of aldosterone?

A

ANP and BNP

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22
Q

what kind of hormone is aldosterone?

A

a steroid hormone

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23
Q

what are glucocorticoids?

A

“stress hormones”
steroid hormones

affect glucose metabolism

suppress the immune system

anti-inflammatory

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24
Q

what are the glucocorticoids and where are they produced?

A

cortisol, corticosterone are produced in the adrenal cortex

cortisone is made in the liver from circulating cortisol

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25
Q

what is a synergistic interaction between hormones?

A

hormones act together and have an increased effect greater than the sum of their parts
eg. glucagon and cortisol and adrenaline together greatly increase blood glucose levels

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26
Q

what are first messengers and second messengers?

A

first messenger: hormone binding to protein receptor in cell membrane activates second messenger.
second messenger is in cytoplasm; changes rates of metabolic reactions

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27
Q

which hormones are necessary for normal growth and development?

A 
growth hormone
insulin
parathyroid hormone
calcitonin
calcitriol
thyroid hormones
reproductive hormones
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28
Q

what is the network of arteries that transports hormones from the hypothalamus to the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

A

the hypophyseal portal system

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29
Q

define regulatory hormone

A

a special hormone released by the hypothalamus, controls endocrine cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland

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30
Q

what tissue or organ is targeted by the hormone ACTH?

A

adrenocorticotropic hormone targets the adrenal cortex

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31
Q

what class of drug is metformin? what are its main pharmacological effects?

A

oral hypoglycaemic (biguanides)

decreased synthesis of glucose
increased insulin sensitivity

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32
Q

which hormone regulates the secretion of potassium in the nephron?

A

aldosterone

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33
Q

ADH

  • where?
  • what?
A

anti-diuretic hormone
made in the hypothalamus, secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
causes kidney to retain water; less urination leads to increased blood volume, therefore increased BP

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34
Q

what hormones are released by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland?

A 
TSH     - thyroid stimulating hormone
ACTH  - adrenocorticotropic hormone
FSH     - follicle stimulating hormone
LH       - lutenising hormone
PRL     - prolactin
GH       - growth hormone
MSH    - melanocyte stimulating hormone
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35
Q

list the hypothalamic releasing hormones

A
  1. CRH - corticotropin releasing hormone –> ACTH –> glucocorticoids
  2. TRH - thyrotropin realeasing hormone –> TSH –> thyroid hormones
  3. GH-RH - growth hormone releasing hormone –> GH
  4. GH-IH - growth hormone inhibiting hormone
  5. PRF - prolactin releasing factor
  6. PIH - prolactin inhibiting factor
  7. GnRH - gonadotropin releasing hormone –> LH and FSH
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36
Q

how does ADH work?

A

causes a second messenger (cAMP) to cause vesicles containing aquaporins to exocytose, creating channels for water to exit into hypertonic ISF and from there into the bloodstream

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37
Q

which hormone stimulates RBC production? where is it made?

A

EPO - erythropoietin, made in the kidneys and liver

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38
Q

name three lipid-soluble hormones

A

cortisol
oestrogen
androgens
aldosterone

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39
Q

what do thyroid hormones do? how are they written?

A

they increase the metabolic rate of cells

T3 and T4

40
Q

which cells do thyroid hormones affect? what is their role in normal childhood development?

A

thyroid hormones work on almost all cells

they are essential for normal development in growing children.

41
Q

where can hormone receptors be located?

A

cell membrane

cytoplasm

nucleus

42
Q

what effect would increased PTH secretion have on blood calcium levels?

A

calcium levels in blood would increase

43
Q

which three organs do calcitonin and PTH work on?

A

bones
intestines
kidneys

44
Q 
thyroxine:
function? 
released from?
what controls release?
what kind of hormone?
A

increases metabolism (and lots more)

released from thyroid gland

because of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)

amine hormone (made like peptides, behave like steroid from release onwards)

45
Q 
calcitonin:
function? 
released from?
what controls release?
what kind of hormone?
A

decreases calcium levels in blood by inhibiting osteoclast activity and increasing rate of excretion at kidneys

released from thyroid gland

because of calcium levels in the plasma

peptide hormone

46
Q

what does growth hormone do?

A

stimulates rate of cell growth and replication by increasing rate of protein synthesis

47
Q

what things trigger the release of hormones?

A

nervous signals (eg the stretching of the digestive tract)

chemical changes in the blood or ECF (eg glucose levels, calcium levels)

other hormones

48
Q

where is aldosterone made? what does it do?

A

made in the adrenal glands

adjusts the rates of fluid, sodium and potassium reabsorption in the kidneys

49
Q

which two antagonist hormones control the production of GH?

what stimulates or inhibits these hormones?

A

GH-RH
GH-IH

somatomedin levels regulate GH-RH and GH-IH

50
Q

primary function of the endocrine system?

A

production of hormones or paracrine factors

51
Q

name the hormones of the thyroid gland?

A

T3
T4
calcitonin

52
Q

what are hormone receptors?

A

protein molecules

53
Q

define hormone

A

a chemical secretion transported via ESF or bloodstream to target cells in other sites of the body

(it’s a blood-borne chemical messenger)

54
Q

what does calcitriol do?

A

increases serum calcium levels:

increases calcium absorption in the intestines
and reabsorption in the kidneys
stimulates osteoclast activity

55
Q

what are the structural classes of hormones?

A

amino acid derivatives (amine hormones)
peptide hormones
lipid derivatives

56
Q

what tissue or organ is targeted by the hormones LH and FSH?

A

follicle-stimulating hormone and lutenising hormone target the testes and ovaries

57
Q

compare the control exerted by the endocrine system vs. the nervous system

A

endocrine is

longer term
slower
more sustained
via blood
uses hormones
58
Q

what effect does GH have on the liver?

A

stimulates production of somatomedins which stimulate growth of skeletal muscle, cartilage and other tissues

59
Q

which tissue or organ is targeted by the hormone MSH?

A

melanocyte-stimulating hormone: melanocytes in the skin

60
Q

what is the major integrating link for the nervous and endocrine systems?

A

the hypothalamus

61
Q

what is a tropic hormone?

A

a hormone that acts on another gland, making it secrete another hormone

62
Q

which hormones are released by the posterior pituitary gland? which tissues/organs do they target?

A

ADH - kidneys

oxytocin - mammary glands, uterus, ductus deferens (sperm duct) and prostate gland

63
Q

how/where does PTH work?

A

parathyroid hormone

  • bones: stimulates osteoclasts
  • intestines: increases calcium absorption
  • kidneys: calcium retained, more calcitriol produced
64
Q

where is glucagon released from?

A

alpha cells of the pancreatic islets

65
Q

how does the hypothalamus integrate the activities of the nervous and endocrine system?

A
  1. acts as an endocrine gland by producing oxytocin and ADH (transported via axons to the posterior pituitary)
  2. secretes regulatory hormones (transported via blood to the anterior pituitary)
  3. nervous control over the adrenal medulla = secretion of adrenalin and noradrenalin
66
Q

where is calcitonin released from?

A

the thyroid gland

67
Q

what is an antagonistic interaction between hormones?

A

hormones that act together to maintain homeostasis but have opposing effects

68
Q

what are the hormones responsible for calcium homeostasis? which does what?

A

calcitonin decreases blood calcium

calcitriol increases blood calcium levels (day-to-day control)

parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels (minute-to-minute control)

69
Q

erythropoietin:
what does it do?
what triggers its release?
where is it produced?

A

EPO stimulates RBC production in bone marrow

decreased renal oxygen levels

produced in the kidneys

70
Q

name the organs with secondary endocrine functions

A 
heart
thymus
digestive tract
kidneys
gonads
71
Q

what class of hormones are most common?

A

peptide hormones

72
Q

broadly, what are the four functions of hormones?

A

growth and development

coping with stress

regulation of metabolism

maintaining homeostasis (fluids, electrolytes, nutrients)

73
Q

what stimulates the release of aldosterone?

A

angiotensin II
decrease in circulating sodium
increase in circulating potassium

74
Q

what is the difference between endocrine and exocrine secretions?

A

endocrine: no duct, direct to blood stream
exocrine: duct

75
Q

which hormones stimulate WBC production?

A

interleukins

colony stimulating factors (CSF)

76
Q

what actions may hormones cause? (as in, what are their mechanisms of action?)

A
  1. change rates of enzymatic reaction/shape/function
  2. open/close channels in cell membrane
  3. control gene expression
77
Q

name the organs of the endocrine system

A 
hypothalamus
pituitary gland
thyroid gland
adrenal glands
pancreas (pancreatic islets)
pineal gland
parathyroid glands
78
Q

what effects do adrenaline and noradrenaline have?

A

increased cardiac activity

increased BP

increased glycogen breakdown (more APT!)

increased blood glucose levels

79
Q

where are the receptors for thyroid hormone?

A

in the cell nucleus and mitochondria of almost all cells

80
Q

which hormones depress immune response and reduce inflammation?

A

glucocorticoids

81
Q

what do ANP and BNP do?

A

inhibit secretions of ADH and aldosterone

decrease sodium and water reabsorption in PCT
= more urine –> decreased blood volume –> decreased BP

82
Q

what triggers the release of ANP and BNP?

A

stretch receptors in the heart

83
Q 
renin: 
where is it produced?
what triggers its release?
what does it do?
what does this result in?
A

secreted by the kidneys in response to decreased renal blood flow

converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I

resulting in increased BP

84
Q

what stimulates the release of ADH?

A

stimulation of osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus

angiotensin II

85
Q

what effect does angiotensin II have on the CNS?

A

increased stimulation of thirst centres

increased production of ADH

86
Q

what’s the difference between the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland?

A

anterior - makes and releases its own hormones

posterior - stores and releases hormones made by the hypothalamus

87
Q

what act in opposition to RAAS, decreasing BP?

A

natriuretic peptides released by the heart

88
Q

which hormones are responsible for glucose homeostasis? which responds to high blood glucose levels?

A

insulin
glucagon

insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high

89
Q

where is insulin produced?

A

in the beta cells of the pancreatic islets

90
Q

which hormone increases the rate of platelet formation?

A

thrombopoietin

91
Q

what are the two regions of the adrenal glands and what hormones do they release?

A

adrenal cortex:
aldosterone
glucocorticoids
small amounts of androgens

medulla: adrenaline (SNS stimulation)

92
Q 
PTH:
where is it produced?
what triggers its release?
what does it do?
what kind of hormone is it?
A

produced in the parathyroid glands in response to falling circulating calcium levels

actions:

  • bones: stimulates osteoclasts
  • intestines: increases calcium absorption
  • kidneys: calcium retained, more calcitriol produced

it’s a peptide hormone

93
Q 
GH:
function?
released from?
what controls release?
what kind of hormone is it?
A

growth hormone stimulates cell growth and reproduction by stimulating protein synthesis

produced in the anterior pituitary

regulated by GH-IH and GH-RH

peptide hormone

94
Q 
ADH:
function?
released from?
what controls release?
what kind of hormone is it?
A

antidiuretic hormone decreases water loss at the kidneys

it’s made in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary

in response to stimulation of osmoreceptors, angiotensin II

pepetide hormone

95
Q

what is sometimes referred to as the ‘master gland’?

A

the pituitary gland

biology 121 (14 decks)

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