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NEURO-ENDO > Endo Physiology > Flashcards

Endo Physiology Flashcards

1
Q

What are hormones?

A

Hormones regulate, integrate and control a wide range of physiological functions.

Hormones are organic chemical messengers produced by endocrine cells and secreted into the bloodstream or local tissues.

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2
Q

What are the classifications of hormones?

A

Circulating hormones : Endocrine

Local hormones : Paracrine (nearby target cell) & autocrine (same cell)

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3
Q

What are a target cells?

A

Target cells respond to the hormones for which they have receptors

•The receptors are located on the cell surface or within the intracellular space

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4
Q

What are the types of receptors?

A

Water soluble hormones - bind to receptor on cell membrane

Lipid soluble hormone - bind in receptor inside cell

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5
Q

What is the classification of hormones chemically?

A

Peptides :
• Comprised of chains of amino acids.
•Water soluble

Steroids:

  • Derived from cholesterol
  • Lipid soluble

Nitric oxide:
• Gas
•Lipid soluble

Amino acid derivatives:

• Tyrosine derivatives:
Catecholamines (water soluble)
Thyroid Hormones (lipid soluble)

•Tryptophan derivative:
Melatonin (water soluble)

Eicosanoids

• Oxidation of arachidonic acid
•Lipid soluble
Prostaglandins

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6
Q

The physiological effects of hormones are dependent on what?

A

The programmed response of the target cells

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7
Q

What is the effect of water soluble hormone?

A

Use second messengers to activate protein kinases (I.e. G proteins)

Phosphorylated proteins cause changes in cell function

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8
Q

What is the effects of lipid soluble hormones?

A

The hormone binds to intracellular receptors

Causes activation of specific sections of DNA

Synthesis of specific proteins

Proteins cause a change in cellular activity

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9
Q

Hormones are secreted in short bursts when needed.

True or false?

A

True

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10
Q

Most hormone regulation is achieved via what mechanism?

A

Negative feedback

A few hormone operate via positive feedback

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11
Q

Secretion if hormones is regulated by?

A

● Signals from the nervous system (Neural & Neurohormones)

●Chemical changes in the blood (Humoral)

●Other hormones (Hormonal)

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12
Q

Insulin mechanism?

A

Negative feedback

Secreted by beta cells in Islets of Langherans in Pancreas

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13
Q

How can hormone sensitivity change?

A

Up-regulation

Down-regulation

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14
Q

What is hyperglycaemia? What happens to maintain homeostasis?

A

Increase blood glucose levels

When blood glucose levels increase, insulin is secreted by the beta - cells within the Islets of Langerhans

●It has an endocrine effect on the liver, muscle and other cells
●Insulin also has a paracrine effect, inhibiting glucagon secretion

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15
Q

What is hypoglycaemia? What happens to maintain homeostasis?

A

Low blood glucose levels

Glucagon is secreted by the alpha- cells of the Islets of Langerhans within the pancreas

●Glucagon stimulates glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis within the liver, thereby increasing blood glucose levels
●It also inhibits Insulin secretion

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16
Q

What is the daily pattern of blood insulin?

A

Initially hypersecretion

Over time Insulin then to β-cell “burn-out” a reduction in insulin release

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17
Q

What are the endocrine glands?

A

Thyroid

Parathyroid

Hypothalamus

Pituitary

Adrenal glands

Pineal gland

Thymus

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18
Q

What hormones are secreted by the thymus?

A

Hormone that promote maturation of the immune system’s T cells

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19
Q

What hormones are released in Gastrointestinal tract?

A

Gastrin
Glucose dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP)
Secretin
Cholecystokinin (CCK)

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20
Q

What hormone are released in the Kidneys?

A

Renin
Erythropoietin (EPO)
Calcitrol

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21
Q

What hormone is released in the Heart?

A

Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP)

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22
Q

What hormone is released in the adipose tissue?

A

Leptin

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23
Q

What hormones are released in the Placenta?

A

Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
Oestrogen & progesterone
Human chorionic somatomammotropin (hCS)

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24
Q

What hormones are released in the Ovaries?

A

Oestrogen (estradiol and estrome)
Progesterone
Relaxin
Inhibin

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25
Q

What hormones are released in the Testes?

A

Testosterone

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26
Q

The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary gland by the?

A

infundibulum

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27
Q

Nuclei in the hypothalamus do what?

A

synthesise hormones and release them into the inferior hypophyseal artery in the posterior pituitar

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28
Q

The associated neurons run ?

A

In the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract

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29
Q

Function if anterior pituitary gland?

A

Synthesis hormones

  • Neurons in the hypothalamus secrete releasing or inhibiting hormones into the primary plexus of the hypothalamo - hypophyseal portal system
  • The releasing or inhibiting hormones are carried in the blood to the anterior pituitary, where they influence the release of other hormones
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30
Q

What are the Posterior pituitary and hypothalamic hormones?

A

Oxytocin

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

Vasopressin

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31
Q

What is the action of ADH (Antidiuretic hormone)?

A

Acts on kidney tubules to reabsorb more water into the blood

Reduces volume of urine formed

Increases concentration of urine formed

Key hormone in control of water balance

High concentrations also cause vasoconstriction

Inhibited by alcohol and diuretic medications

Release triggered by low blood pressure, pain and certain drugs

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32
Q

What is the key hormone in control of water balance?

A

ADH

33
Q

High concentration of ADH cause what?

A

Vasoconstriction

34
Q

ADH is inhibited by ?

A

Alcohol and diuretic medications

35
Q

What triggers the release of ADH?

A

Low blood pressure a, pain and certain drugs

36
Q

What happens when appropriate releaand response to ADH?

A

Diabetes insipidus

37
Q

What are the symptoms of Diabetes insipidus?

A

Excessive thirst
Production of large column of dilute urine
Dehydration

(Similar to diabetes mellitus- but no glucose in the urine)

38
Q

What are the cause of Diabetes Insipidus?

A

Reduced secretion if ADH

Reduced sensitivity of the kidney nephrons to ADH

39
Q

What is the action of Oxytocin?

A

Strong stimulate in uterine contractions

Released during childbirth

Hormonal trigger for milk ejection

Acts as neurotransmitter in brain

40
Q

Oxytocin acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain

True or false?

A

True

41
Q

What are the anterior pituitary releasing and inhibiting hormones?

A
  • Growth hormone releasing hormone
  • Growth hormone inhibiting hormone
  • Thyroid releasing hormone
  • Corticotrophin releasing hormone
  • Gonadotrophin releasing hormone
  • Prolactin inhibiting hormone
42
Q

What cells release the Growth hormone?

A

Somatotrophs

Hypothalamic hormones : Growth hormone releasing hormone

43
Q

What cells release the a thyroid stimulating hormone?

A

Thyrotrophs

Hypothalamic hormones : Thyrotropin releasing hormone

44
Q

What cells release the adrenocorticotrophic hormone (ACTH)?

A

Corticotrophs

Hypothalamic hormones : Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)

45
Q

What cells release the Luteinising hormone and Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)?

A

Gonadotrophs

Hypothalamic hormones : Prolactin releasing hormone/ Dopamine

46
Q

What cells release Prolactin?

A

Lactotrophs

47
Q

The target for ACTH is?

A

The adrenal cortex

48
Q

What are hormones?

A

Hormones are organic chemical messengers produced by endocrine cells and secreted into the bloodstream or local tissues.

49
Q

What is the function of hormones?

A

Hormones regulate, integrate and control a wide range of physiological functions.

50
Q

What is the role of the nuclei I’m the hypothalamus?

A

Nuclei in the hypothalamus synthesise hormones and release them into the inferior hypophyseal artery in the posterior pituitary

51
Q

The associated neurons in the hypothalamus?

A

Run in the hypothalamic-hypophyseal tract

52
Q

The anterior pituitary synthesises its one hormones.

True or false?

A

True

  • Neurons in the hypothalamus secrete releasing or inhibiting hormones into the primary plexus of the hypothalamo - hypophyseal portal system
  • The releasing or inhibiting hormones are carried in the blood to the anterior pituitary, where they influence the release of other hormones
53
Q

Hormones of posterior pituitary gland and hypothalamus

A

Oxytocin

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Vasopressin
54
Q

What is the target organ for ACTH?

A

Adrenal cortex

55
Q

What are the target organs for thyroid stimulating hormones?

A

T4 and T3 generate growth inCNS

Too much = hyperthyroidism
Too little= hypothyroidism

56
Q

Functions of Growth hormone?

A

Direct actions on metabolism

Indirect actions on growth

57
Q

Direct action so on metabolism of Growth hormone

A
  • increases blood levels of fatty acids
  • decreases rate of glucose uptake and metabolism- conserving outcomes
  • Glycogen breakdown and glucose release to blood ( anti-insulin effect)
58
Q

Indirect actions on growth of Growth hormone

A
  • Mediates growth via growth-promoting proteins
    Insulin like growths factors (IGFs)
  • IGFs stimulate :
    Uptake of nutrient , DNA and proteins
    Formation of collages and deposition of bone matrix
  • Major targets - bone and skeletal muscle
59
Q

What are the effects of hyper secretion of Growth hormone in children ?

A

Gigantism

60
Q

What are the effects of hyper secretion of Growth hormone in adults ?

A

Acromegaly

61
Q

What are the effects of hyposecretion of Growth hormone in children ?

A

Pituitary dwarfism

62
Q

Symptoms of Gigantism

A
  • very large hands and feet
  • thick toes and fingers
  • a prominent jaw and forehead
  • coarse facial features
63
Q

Symptoms of Acromegaly

A
  • Enlarged hands and feet.
  • Coarsened, enlarged facial features.
  • Coarse, oily, thickened skin.
  • Excessive sweating and body odour.
  • Small outgrowths of skin tissue (skin tags)
  • Fatigue and muscle weakness.
64
Q

Symptoms of Pituitary Dwarfism

A
  • Below-average growth
  • Normal body proportions
  • Immature appearance
  • Chubby body build
  • Prominent forehead
  • Underdeveloped bridge of the nose
65
Q

Parafollicular cell?

A

Secrete Calcitonin

66
Q

Follicular cell secrete?

A

Thyroxin = also called tetraiodothyronine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3)

67
Q

What are the actions of thyroid hormones T3 and T4?

A
  • Increase basal metabolic rate (BMR)
  • Help maintain normal body temperature
  • Stimulate protein synthesis
  • Increase the use of glucose and fatty acids for ATP production
  • Up regulate beta receptors that attach to catecholamines
  • Work with hGH and insulin to accelerate body growth
68
Q

Symptoms of Goitre disease

A

Goitre means enlarged thyroid gland

  • It can happen with hypothyroidism, hyperthyroidism or euthyroidism (i.e normal production)
  • If dietary iodine intake is low, then the low level of T3 in the blood results in secretion of TSH, which causes enlargement of the thyroid gland
69
Q

Symptoms of Graves’ disease?

A

Graves Diseases is the most common form of hyperthyroidism

  • It is an autoimmune disorder in which antibodies are produced that mimic the action of TSH (thyroid growth and production of T3 and T4)
  • Signs include an enlarged thyroid gland and exophthalmos (oedema behind the eyes)
70
Q

Treatment for Graves’ disease

A

Treatment may include : removal, or partial removal of the thyroid gland; use of radioactive iodine to destroy some of the thyroid tissue, or sue of drugs to block synthesis of thyroid hormones.

71
Q

Effects of hypothyroidism in children

A

Hyposecretion of thyroid present at birth
•Causes mental retardation and stunted bone growth

•Treatment with thyroid hormones needs to be started immediately and continued for life

72
Q

Effects of hypothyroidism in adults

A

Causes myxoedema; symptoms include

  • puffy facial tissues
  • slow heart rate
    - low body temperature
  • sensitivity to cold
  • dry hair and skin
  • lethargy and weakness
  • reduced alertness

•Treatment with thyroid hormones may reduce the symptoms

73
Q

Effects of Calcitonin

A

Reduces blood levels of calcium (Ca2+) and Phosphate (HPO4-) by:

a) inhibiting bone resorption by osteoclasts
b) increasing uptake of Ca2+ and HPO4- into the bone

•Feedback control by blood Ca2+ level: increased when high, decreased when low

74
Q

Chief cells produce?

A

parathyroid hormone (PTH; parathormone)

75
Q

Oxyphil cells produce?

A

Do not have a function in normal parathyroid function, but may secrete excess PTH in cancer of the parathyroid gland

76
Q

Effects of PTH on bone ?

A
  • Increases number and activity of osteoclasts

- Bone resorption increases, so calcium and phosphates are released into the blood

77
Q

Effects of PTH on kidneys

A
  • Slows the rate of loss of calcium and magnesium from blood into urine (so blood levels increase)
  • Increases loss of phosphate from blood into urine (so blood level decreases)
  • Promotes formation of the hormone CALCITRIOL (active form of vitamin D) in the kidneys, which increases the rate of calcium, phosphate and magnesium absorption form the GI tract into the blood
78
Q

Explain hyper-parathyroidism

A

Usually caused by a benign tumour of 1 or more of the parathyroid

Causes chronic high blood calcium level

•Can be treated very quickly by Minimally Invasive Radioguided Parathyroid Surgery (MIRP): this involves injecting the patient with a radioactive substance that is taken up by the overactive gland, then using a radioactivity scanner to perform very localised surgery under local anaesthesia

79
Q

Symptoms of hyperparathyroidism

A

Nervous system problems:

  • fatigue
  • depression
  • irritability
  • worsening short term memory
  • worsening concentration
  • “brain fog”

Bone and joint problems

  • weakening of the bones
  • joint and bone pain

Kidney problems

  • kidney stones
  • urinating more frequently
  • kidney disease

Digestive problems

  • abdominal pain
  • nausea
  • vomiting
  • constipation
  • ulcers
  • pancreatitis

NEURO-ENDO (21 decks)

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