Encoding Flashcards
what is encoding?
the process throught which info is moves from STM to LTM
STM—-LTM
questions
How does knowledge affect encoding?
What strategies improve encoding?
What other kinds of factors help encoding?
knowledge and encoding
encoding is affected by meaning of the material we are trying
meaning and knowledge are very important for encoding:
1) elaborate vs maintenance rehearsal
2) depth of processing effects
3) organization
Types of Rehearsal
rote/ maintenance rehearsal: repeatedly rehearsing an item on the same level
ex: reacting a phone number to yourself before you write it down
elaborative: adding info to seems as your rehearse them
making up a story about words you see in list
is maintenance rehearsal enough (repeat things so many times) enough for knowledge to enter LTM?
prediction 1: if maintenance rehearsal is enough then repeated items should improve LTM
prediction 2: if maintenance rehearsal is not enough,
then repeating items will have no effect on long-term
memory
STUDY: Glenberg, smith, and green 1977
asked participate to remember numbers at delay while repeating a list of words.
results: not a difference between repeating a word 3 times or repeating a word 27 times. No variation repeating a triplet of words 3 times or 9x, not finding an advantage for maintenance rehearsal
no advantage for repeating items multiple times. maintenance rehearsal by itself is not enough to encode items.
Elaborative rehearsal is necessary to move info into LTM
Menti question: Jason is preparing for a vocabulary quiz in his French language class. Which strategy would be the least effective for him to memorize the definitions he needs to know?
A. Rereading all the pairs of words many times.
B. Quizzing himself by translating the terms between
English and French.
C. Creating elaborate images to link the French words
with the English words.
D. Writing stories using the French words.
Rereading all paird of words
Depth of Processing
idea that there are different encoding strategies that allow us for different levels of processing.
ex: Craick and Tulving 1975
what is depth? is depth always necessary?
STUDY: Hyde and Jenkins 1973
overall experimental works supports the idea that deeper encoding improves memory
manipulated both types of tasks and whether encoding was intentional or accidental
sentence fram task: does the word fit in the sentence
EG checking: does the work contain an E or G
Part of Speech
Frequency of usage of works
Pleasantness Rating
result: tasks that ask you to engage with meaning of the words causes deeper encoding than those that do not.
incidental vs accidental: we see a levels of processing affect
Transfer Appropriate Processing
Morris, Branford, and Franks 1977 (STUDY)
In some situations, depth of processing alone cannot
explain better performance
encoding
semantic task
ryhme task
results: interactions, when we are being tested with standard recognition task with semantic, but when we are tested with writing task and we encoding with writing then we do better.
The task was appropriate for the task we were going to do.
Summary
deeper processing results in better encoding
depth involves connection items to other process of meaningful information
depending on the task depth of processing may not provide the greatest advantage.
encoding: accessing meaning in some way
Menti question: Your friend explains that she links chemical reactions to scenes from plays she as been in as a way to remember them. Do you think this encoding strategy would work well for her?
A. No, encoding tasks must match the type of test
that is used
B. No, encoding tasks must be tested to show that
they work
C. Yes, most elaborative encoding tasks create an
advantage for memory
D. Yes, but only if she uses Shakespeare
Yes, most elaborative encoding tasks create an
advantage for memory
Organization
improves encoding by introducing additional structure
can occur in multiple levels
how is stimulus presented
how learning encourages strategies
from expertise of learner
Stimulus Presentations: Bradbent, Cooper, Braodmrny 1978
presented words with or without visual organization
visual organization was helping them learn the material
Strategy: Tulving and Pearlston 1966 (STUDY)
Tulving and Pearlston 1966
presented lists that vary in number of related words per category
2, 4, 3 related words in a category
- cow and rat
- engineering lawyer
Strategy: Tulving and Pearlston 1966 (STUDY)
Tulving and Pearlston 1966
presented lists that vary in number of related words per category
2, 4, 3 related words in a category
- cow and rat
- engineering lawyer
more words per category improves uncued recall, and words we recalled
results: when we get to 4 words pet category performance is better than average, extra info from that category helps you remember the information
Expertise: Chase and Ericsson 1981
has a graduate training and increase digit span as much as possible
- student used extensive knowledge of running times to create chunks
result: eventually he could recall sequences up to 80 digits in exact order of presentation
Menti Question: You would like to memorize the names of all 150 original Pokemon. Which of the following strategies would help you?
Learning to report the Pokemon in chunks that are
grouped by type
B. Drawing diagrams that show how different
evolutions of Pokemon are related to each other
C. Linking the names of the Pokemon to a domain
you are an expert in
D. All of these would help
all of these would help
Strategies to improve encoding
how can we understand these strategies with respect to empirical literature? (extensions)
relating to yourself, creating images
Mnemonics
Encouraging laborative encoding
ROYGBIV- colors of rainbow
Image mnemonics- “boot” vers
Peg systems
used by memory athletes
involve combining new items with a bunch of pre learned information associations
pegwords: bun (one), shoe (two), tree (three)
Method of Loci
place objects along a route, “walk” route to retrieve items
ex; placing grocery items along tour usual commute
Costs and Benefits
benefits:
effective, especially for ordered lists
can be used multiple times
costs:
superficial, ,might interfere with learning of meaning
does not allow flexible access to info0 ROYGBIV
might be difficult to forget- different mnemonics
Other factors:
is it all about meaning??
or are there other stuff?
May, Hasher, Stolzfus (1993)
younger adults tend to be evening people and older adults may need to be morning people
gave recognition memory test that crossed time of day with group preference
if preference of being a morning or evening performance, then the people that matched with their preference should do better, recognition task
result: younger adult who preferred evening did better if that was there preference
people really do better in their preferred time of day.
Jenkins and Dallenback
Asked two participants learn nonsense syllabus and repeat them back at various intervals
two kinds of intervals:
slept between when you learned them and recalled
awake between when you were awake
result: sleeping helps you recall more syllabus. something about sleep is helping you make memories
sleep consolidation
Imageability
Dual- coding hypothesis:
some items are easier to visualize
ex: cat vs concept of divison
things that are encoded are encoded 2 ways as images and words, so it is easier to encoded
list 1: doubt, truth, love
list 2: sock, fork, chair
imagabiloty can improve encoding
Distinctiveness: Konkle Brady, Alvares, Olivia 2010
items that are unusual are also easier to remember from LTM
asked participants to chose itmes they had studies in 2 AFC recognition
results: when you studies one item from one category and had to pick it out from a totally different group it was easier to
only studied one item and study that same item from the same category
16 diff hats and asked to remember 2 hats, there is least succes
having 1 item , apple hate bird, is helping encoding because the item is so different everything else.
