Doughton - History 4. Change and continuity in US foreign policy 1890-1941 Flashcards
American imperialism in the late nineteenth century
America before 1890
Up until 1880, the US had been mainly isolationist, with people unwilling to interfere with foreign affairs.
What were the US’s main motives for imperialism?
The duty of American to spread it’s civilisation (social Darwinism) i.e - expansionism, in which Roosovelt advocated for.
Arguments for imperialism
-To oversee possessions would provide American manufacturers with cheap raw materials.
-To compete with other countries that were expanding their empire.
-America was once a colony which fought for freedom.
-Duty of America to spread it’s civilization.
-Preclusive imperialism (take colonies to prevent other countries from doing so.
-Manifest destiny.
Arguments against imperialism
-Could lead to further entanglements like war.
-America did not treat its minorities well so it was unlikely that they were considering other minorities.
The Spanish American war
In 1898, the USA went to war with Spain, which most historians agree marked a change to a more active foreign and imperial policy. Cuba was on America’s doorstep and according to the Monroe Doctrine, was in the USA’s sphere of interest. However, Cuba was controlled by Spain but Cuban revolutionaries were demanding independence. Spain did offer the Cuban rebels concessions by not enough.
…pt2
The USA was unsure about how to react to either Spain or the rebels until two incidents resulted in war with Spain. A private letter from the Spanish minister in Washington DC was stolen and printed. It accused President McKinley of being a ‘weak bidder for the admiration of the crowd’ in his Cuban policy. McKinley and the American public found this very insulting. This was followed by the ‘Maine’ incident. In February 1898 with the (probably accidental) sinking of the ‘USS Maine’, killing 260 American sailors, they entered the war.
The Monroe doctrine
In 1823, President Monroe stated that he disliked European countries interfering in American affairs. They wanted to maintain a non-problematic relation with countries and avoid conflict. However, they wanted to be the dominant force in their region, and, in turn, they intervened in internal affairs of central and South America.
Why did USA go to war with Spain?
There has been much debate about the reasons for the outbreak of the Spanish-American War. Overall, there were several reasons for US intervention:
Moral reasons (interest of Cuba)
-Putting the Monroe doctrine into action and showing support fir a fellow nation.
-Americans were genuinely outraged at the way prisoners were being treated in Cuba.
-‘Teller Ammendment’ - said that they had no desire to exercise sovereignty, jurisdiction or control.
-Public interest.
Imperialist reasons (interest of USA)
-The historian Carl Degler, writing in the 1950s, suggested that it was due to economic reasons, with American seeking new markets in response to the 1893 Depression.
-It was partly inspired by an aggressive and patriotic press campaign that inflamed public opinion, known as the ‘Yellow Press’.
-The desire of the USA to join the ranks of the Great Powers in international influence.
-More recently historians such as Walter LaFeber have argued that McKinley favoured war as it was in the interests of the USA. Spain would be defeated quite easily and the USA would benefit from greater investment in Cuba as weel as increased trade.
Defeating Spain
In April 1898, US forces launched a double attack on Spanish territories. The navy attacked Spain in the Philippines and defeated its fleet outside Manila. The navy also played an important role in Cuba with one fleet under Rear Admiral Sampson blockading Santiago and the northern approaches to Cuba and a second fleet, under Commodore Winfield Schley, blockading the southern approaches to the island.
The results of the war
The USA therefore did not include or even seriously consider the Cubans in the final peace settlement with Spain, the Treaty of Paris, which was signed with Spain in August 1898. The Treaty stated that:
…pt2
-Cuban independence was recognised but the USA. -was allowed possession of Guantanamo Bay.
-Spain lost the last parts of its American empire by ceding Puerto Rico in the Caribbean to the USA.
-The USA was able to purchase the Philippines for $20 million.
-Spain also ceded the Pacific island of Guam to the USA.
The aftermath - the Plat Ammendment 1901
The Platt Ammendment stated that they were allowed to intervene to uphold stability in Cuba. Also granted them the right to maintain a base in Guatanamo Bay.
Did they stick to the Teller Ammendment?
Do you think America got involved out of self-interest?why?
No, not at all.
Yes. I believe that an imperialist sentiment was espoused when America realised the multitude of economic opportunities. They ventured under the justification of social Darwinism, so that they could uphold stability.
Overview of foreign and imperial policies-1890-1914
During the decade of 1890 the USA extended its influence in the Pacific and Latin America and fought a war against Spain which was a major turning point in American foreign and imperial policy.
Pacific
The US became increasingly involved in the Pacific in the 1890s.
Somoa
US actions in Samoa were an example of preclusive imperialism. America’s interest in Samoa first began in 1872 when the King of Samoa offered the USA the naval base of Pago Pago on the eastern island of Tutuila. Although this was refused, the USA was aware of increasing German and British interest in the area, with the German Trading and Plantation Company turning Samoa into the most important trading post in the Pacific. During a civil war in Samoa in 1898, the Americans and British supported the opposing side to that of the Germans. The following year the three powers abolished the Samoan monarchy and signed the Tripartite Convention in which Britain relinquished all rights to Samoa, the USA established a protectorate in Eastern Samoa while Western Samoa became a German colony. The British relinquished all rights to Samoa in return for being given other Pacific island chains formerly belonging to Germany.
Hawaii
In 1898, the USA annexed Hawaii. Hawaii was important as a stopping station on the way to Japan and China and US missionaries had settled there. Moreover, since 1875 the USA had imported Hawaiian sugar duty free and Hawaii became increasingly dependent on the US economy. By the 1890s, there were 3,000 American sugar growers out of the 90,000 Hawaiians living on the island. In 1887, the USA established its major Pacific naval base at Pearl Harbour in Hawaii. In 1890, the McKinley Tariff removed duties on raw sugar so the Hawaii growers lost their trading advantages began to suffer as a result of competition from other sugar interests, especially in Cuba. In 1891, the Hawaiian king died and the new queen, Liliuokalani, led a rebellion and American residents called for help for the USA. The marines arrived and within three days the rebels surrendered. The USA now planned to annex Hawaii because of its important location but was opposed by those who feared that America would become an imperial power, no better than the Europeans. However, the war with Spain in Cuba strengthened the arguments for annexation, which took place in July 1898.
Phillipines
The Philippines - As part of the Treaty of Paris, 1898, which ended the Spanish-American War, the USA was allowed to purchase the Philippine Islands from Spain for $20 million. There were various reasons for this purchase:
The reasons were :
-Many felt that the USA would be able to civilise to islanders through converting them to Christianity
as well as ‘superior’ American ideals
-In addition, there was preclusive imperialism. The fear was that the Philippines might be taken over by Britain, Germany or Japan
The islands could not be returned to Spain and the Filipinos, even though they wanted independence, seemed incapable of ruling themselves effectively
…pt2
There was strong opposition to the annexation of the islands both in the Philippines and in the USA. The Filipinos had been fighting for independence from Spain and assumed that once the Spanish were defeated, they would be given their independence. The USA had to fight a four-year war of subjugation, costing around $600 million and, by 1904, 126,00 troops were stationed in the Philippines.
Latin America
The USA looked to extend its influence in Latin America in terms of political influence and developing trade links. While there was no intention of annexing regions, US business interests sought to exploit South and Central America and in doing so raise their standards of living and quality of life.
Peurto Rico
The island was a Spanish colony but had been given a degree of independence before the outbreak of the Spanish-American war in 1898. It was invaded in 1898 by American troops and, after a little fighting, the Spanish surrendered and withdrew. Under the Organic Act of 1900, Puerto Rico to be administered by the USA.
Venezuela
In 1895, Britain and Venezuela were in dispute over Venezuela’s border with the British colony of Guiana. President Cleveland demand that the British agree to send the dispute to arbitration, a demand which was, at first, rejected by Salisbury, the British Prime Minister. The British eventually backed down when the USA threatened to send 54 vessels to the disputed area. Arbitration eventually decided in favour of Venezuela.
1898 Spanish American War
Spanish American War = causes 1) Idealism, 2) Desire to assert American Power, 3) Media, 4) Monroe Doctrine
In essence, Monroe Doctrine= Cuba was very close
Took until 11th April for Mckinley to gain approval from Congress to go to war- wanted a negotiated settlement but the mood of the people was for war= public opinion. Publication of a letter by Spanish Ambassador criticising the President - this caused an outcry
Foreign and imperial policy, 1901-1912
Under President Roosovelt and Taft, the US continued to protect and extend its influence in Latin America as well as the Far West. Roosovelt in particular, relished the opportunities that the presidency gave him for control of foreign and imperialist affairs.
Why was Cuba of interest?
1) Cuba’s strategic and economic position. = it controlled the Gulf of Mexico, the Caribbean and from there the USA could trade with South America
2) If the Panama Canal was built it would increase it’s strategic importance
3) Some argued that it was part of it’s Manifest Destiny for Cuba to be part of the USA (only 200km away)
4) The US had $50 million invested in Cuba- tobacco and sugar- 86% of all exports went to the US. Cuban independence could lead to damage to American property and business.
Latin America
The period after the Spanish-American war showed a marked increase in US interest and direct involvement in Latin America. During the same speech that Roosovelt gave to congress in 1904, he announced a corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, which become known as the Roosovelt corollary (US armed intervention in Latin America when it felt necessary to prevent financial and/or political collapse.
Panama canal
USA long supported the building of a canal to connect the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, An American company, the New Panama Canal company encouraged by Roosovelt, took over the rights to build the new canal. However, Columbia demanded money from US. Roosovelt refused. In 1903 the Panamanians staged a revolt for independence from the rule of Columbia and were supported by the US. Panama achieved independecne and accepted US’s offer of $10mil for a strip of land to build the canal. Canal completed in 1914. ROOSEVELT SENT CRUISE SHIP NASHVILLE TO STOP COLOMBIANS RETAKING PANAMA
…pt2
-Canal great benefit
-Lease bought from de Lesseps 1901 america unhappy that lease negotiations were being stalled by Colombia
-November 1903 a Panamanian revolution broke out (organised by canal company employee) Roosevelt sent cruise ship Nashville to stop
-Colombians retaking Panama America recognised the rebel govt. and in return was granted control of the canal zone
EVALUATION= TR DECISIVE DID NOT WAIT FOR APPROVAL OF CONGRESS POWER OF PRESIDENTIAL OFFICE INCREASES
1904
-When Venezuela defaulted on debts a combined fleet arrived from Italy, Germany and Britain
-America wanted to see no European presence which could possibly lead to an attempt to take bases
-As a result TR amended the Monroe Doctrine with the Roosevelt Corollary= this stated that to preserve order the US had the right to intervene in the affairs of other countries on the continent in cases of ‘chronic wrongdoing or impotence’= used to justify taking over the finances of the Dominican Republic 1905, military intervention in Nicaragua in 1912 and in Haiti 1918
The far east - China
Unlike GB Russia and Germany the USA had no desire to expand territorially into China
US Secretary of State John Hay realised that many Americans would oppose any acquisition of territory and instead introduced ‘open door’ policy with China with the first open door note asking states to respect each others trading rights in China even in each others spheres of interest
Evaluation
American foreign and imperial policy had undergone significant changes 1890-1912, at beginning USA was mainly isolationist with minimal intervention abroad. there was limited support for imperial expansion
However, by 1912 USA had become involved in its first major external conflict in nearly 100 years, moreover there was great support for imperial expansion with the USA extending its influence in the Pacific, Philippines and Samoa, the Far East, esp. China and Latin America inc. Cuba
TR helped bring peace in the Far East
Expanded power in Latin America
The Great White Fleet signaled America’s power and presence letting world see what America has got
Theadore Roosovelt
He believed that the world was polarized into the civilized and barbaric and that it was the duty of the civilized, Christian nations - such as the USA - to support backward and lawless nations, even if that meant using force.
The Roosovelt Corollary
-This sanctioned US armed interventions in Latin America when it felt necessary to prevent financial or/and political collapse.
-This was used to justify much more US military involvement in Latin America. Roosovelt insisted that countries in Latin America had to pay off their debts from loans.
-Roosovelt saw America as a political force, to ensure responsible behaviour and protect other countries.
Theadore Roosovelt’s foreign policy overview 1901-1909
What he did - 1
In 1903 the USA intervened in a dispute between Columbia and the inhabitants of the Panama, resulting in the independence of Panama and a treaty favouring the USA. This entrusted the USA with the construction and operation of a canal joining the Pacific Ocean with the Caribbean, giving the USA enormous strategic and commercial.
THIS WAS IMPERIALIST.
What he did - 2
In Cuba independence was dominated by US influence and the country became, in effect, an economic colony of the USA. The Cubans were forced to accept the Platt Ammendment, which gave the USA the right to intervene in Cuba if it’s independence or stable government was threatened. It also permitted Americans to establish a permanent naval base in Guatanamo Bay.
THIS WAS IMPERIALIST.
What he did - 3
American economic power also dominated Central America with US corporations united fruit and American tobacco companies dominating local economies.
THIS WAS IMPERIALIST.
What he did - 4
The secretary state John Hay announced an open door policy whereby all foreign Nations should have the same commercial access to China. He also stated that the USA would protect China’s independence and territory.
NO, THIS WAS NOT IMPERIALIST
What he did - 5
US intervention was emphasized by Roosovelt’s Amendment of the Monroe Doctrine known as the Roosovelt Corollary ; this asserted that the USA could intervene in Caribbean countries, ‘however reluctantly’ , if they were threatened externally or internally.
YES, THIS WAS IMPERIALIST.
What he did - 6
Roosovelt burnished his naval credentials by sending 16 battleships on a 46 thousand mile world publicity cruise in 1907. Nicknamed the ‘Great white fleet’ , it marked the emergence of a powerful US naval base.
YES, THIS WAS IMPERIALIST.
What he did - 7
Roosovelt acted as a peacemaker, facilitating the treaty of Portsmouth in the 1904-5 Russo-Japanese war. Also exercised influence in Moroccan crisis. US now a major force.
NO, THIS WAS NOT IMPERIALIST.
Theadore Roosovelt in Japan
Relations with Japan were tense at the turn of the century, there had been substantial Japanese immigration into both Hawaii and the USA but legislation in 1900 had put a stop to this = made japanese upset because they were openly racist laws they were also upset by annexation of Philippines = on the other hand the USA felt threatened by the growth of a large Japanese navy as well as Japan’s ambitions in China
1904 - 1905 Japan
Threats increased when Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War- TR worried about power of Japan = embarrassment to Russia never expected to lose.
Roosevelt helped negotiate the end of the war with the Treaty of New Hampshire in which Japan was given free hand in Korea (gained Korea), and Southern part of Manchuria. Tensions increased = Japanese blamed Roosevelt for the decision not to force Russia to pay war indemnity and ACA looking to segregate Japanese school children
However, segregation was sorted out
1908 Japan
TR sent the Great White Fleet to tour the Pacific Ports to demonstrate her interest in the area. She received a friendly welcome.
TR was increasingly concerned about Japanese imperialism, was keen to develop better relations.
The Root-Takahira Agreement was signed= the two countries agreed to each other’s interests in China and to maintain the current situation in the Pacific.
The Open Door Policy was confirmed for the USA who, in return and without consulting the Koreans agreed to the Japanese ‘right’ to annex Korea,
Evaluation in Japan
American foreign and imperial policy had undergone significant changes 1890-1912, at beginning USA was mainly isolationist with minimal intervention abroad. there was limited support for imperial expansion.
However, by 1912 USA had become involved in its first major external conflict in nearly 100 years, moreover there was great support for imperial expansion with the USA extending its influence in the Pacific, Philippines and Samoa, the Far East, esp. China and Latin America inc. Cuba
…pt2
TR helped bring peace in the Far East
Expanded power in Latin America
The Great White Fleet signaled America’s power and presence
letting world see what America has got
Woodrow Wilson in Latin America
Moral diplomacy
Desire to do good would govern the US policy.
1913 Woodrow Wilson
Criticised policies such as dollar diplomacy and the interference of America in other countries and yet he also sent troops into Latin America
he sent troops to Haiti
Increased control over the Dominican Republic
In Mexico he involved the USA in a Civil War
Wilson very different attitude
Latin America= back yard
Mexico borders America= geographical
Wilson and the problem of neutrality
-He was keen to reserve what he saw as the aggressive policies of his predecessors.
-In October 1913, he quoted “the USA would never again seek an additional foot of territory by conquest”.
His involvement with Latin America
He was not ostensible moral and liberal; his administrations intervened military once in Cuba, twice in Panama and five times in Hondouras.
Hispaniola and Haiti were occupied by American troops in 1915.
Mexico 1913 causes and events
govt. was toppled and the leader Madero was murdered
Wilson referred to the rebels as butchers and refused to recognise them and instead supported the constitutionalists led by Carranza
Instead he sent arms and support to constitutionalists- 7,000 soldiers were sent to prevent the rebel govt. lead by Huerta to receive supplies from the Germans
This was successful and Carranza took power
…pt2
At the same time America had been hinting that they would support the nationalists led by Villa.
When Carranza took power they were furious and launched 2 raids across the border killing 35 American citizens
Thousands of American soldiers were sent to hunt Villas down but failed= coming back with force
If regime corrupt, the stable has right to get involved= determine type of govt. in Mexico
Wilson’s idealism did achieve some success;
-Fought against special concessions - insisted congress repealed the 1912 law exempting US coastal shipping from paying tolls to the Panama canal; he wanted to uphold the rule of law.
-US interest built highways, bridges, airfields, hospitals and schools and set up the telephone service throughout Latin America.
USA and the first world war
At the onset of the war in August 1914, the USA apparently adopted a policy of neutrality that was maintained until April 1917, when it entered the was an associated power on the side of the allies. During the 1916 presidential elections, Wilson campaigned to keep the USA out of war; and yet a few months after his electoral victory he had joined conflict.
Reasons for neutrality - Public opinion
The prevailing mood in the USA was that the war in Europe had nothing to do with them. There was a widespread feeling that wars were futile.
On 29th August 1914, 1500 women marched down fifth avenue in New York in black robes to the beat of a drum as a protest against war.
Various infleuntial leaders including Wilson’s secretary of state William Jennings Bryan, began to organise campaigns against war.
Reasons for neutrality - Wilsonianism
Wilson sought for neutrality.
In his declaration for neutrality of 19th August 1914, he offered to negotiate. This was a declaration to congress in which he warned US citizens against taking sides in the First World War. He was a proponent for not only no US involvement, but no conflict whatsoever.
Tensions concerning neutrality
There were however problems with neutrality.
Pro-British feeling.
While Wilson genuinely sought neutrality, he, and many of his advisors, actually favoured the allies, and the British in particular. This was in part due to Wilson’s natural preferences for British culture and customs.
Anti-German feeling
Wilson agreed with his advisors that Germany posed a threat to US interests and it would be better to help the allies fight the Germans now than the USA possibly have to fight them alone one day. Wilson was worried about Germany’s interests with Latin America, especially Mexico. There was also anti-German propaganda in the press.
Trade
The allies also benefitted more than the central powers from trade with the USA. Some argued no trade with countries at was, other believed it would bring propensity to the USA. Wilson followed the rules of international law, which said that neutrals could sell to countries at war. Trade favoured the allies much more than the Germans, in part because of the British blockade of Germany,.
Trade with the allies, much of which was in munitions, stood at 3,2b by 1916; 10x the rade with other central powers.
Reasons for USA entry into WWI
In April 1917, the USA entered the war on the Allied side. Various reasons have been offered for this:
Resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare
On 31 January 1917, Germany gave eight hours’ notice that it intended to sink all shups found within the war zone around British waters. The German government believed they were in a position where they could starve Britain into surrender by intensifying the U-boat campaign. If the USA declared war as a result, the German gamble was that the Allies, both lacking foodstuffs and war materials imported from the USA and other American countries would surrender before the Americans could cross the submarine-infested Atlantic in sufficient numbers to make any difference.
…pt2
While Wilson privately considered the Kaiser as insane, and on 3 February broke off diplomatic relations from Germany, he still hoped to avoid entry into the war. However during February and March 1917 several US ships were sunk by German U-boats.
German activities within the USA
We have already seen that Wilson distrusted many German-Americans and accused them of espionage and sabotage. Some Germans were undoubtedly spying and committing acts may have been exaggerated, the presence of internal traitors undoubtedly fuelled further resentment against Germany.
Zimmerman Telegram
The Zimmermann Telegram was a coded telegram from German Foreign Secretary Arthur Zimmermann sent to the German Ambassador to Mexico, Heinrich von Eckhart, on 16 January 1917. It told Heinrich to propose to the Mexican government a secret alliance with Germany in which, if they went to war with the USA, Mexico would receive back Texas, Arizona and New Mexico. In February 1917, the US Ambassador in Britain sent to the State Department an intercept of the telegram.
Declaration of War
In April 1917, Wilson asked Congress for the authority to make war on Germany. He realised quite simply that he had little choice; the USA had been provoked until its credibility was threatened. The Allies; moreover, were in trouble. In February and March 1917, 1 million tons of Allied shipping was sunk by U-boats. Wilson feared their defeat was increasingly likely if US involvement wasn’t forthcoming. He, by now, realised that only belligerents could possibly have any influence in negotiating the post-war settlement.
Different interpretations
Historians have emphasised differing reasons for the entry of the USA into the war and in this debate we will reflect on some of the perspectives from which they argue.
The economic and isolationist debate
During the inter-war period between 1918 and 1941, when reaction to the horrors of the WWI had set in, many commentators such as C. Hartley Grattan and Walter Mills saw Wilson as a dupe, someone who had been swayed by a special relationship with big business including bankers and munitions manufacturers into going to war, so these powerful and wealthy interests could continue to enjoy huge profits. They cite evidence such as how exports to the Allies brought the USA out of Depression in 1914 and that Bryan resigned because he felt loans and exports were compromising neutrality. Charles Beard developed the argument further, stressing that the pressures for entry into war came from ordinary business interests.
…pt2
Many of these historians supported isolationism during the inter-war years, they deployed their arguments to reason that entry into the war had been wrong and the USA should not repeat this. Given the subsequent rise of Nazi Germany and the entry of the USA, belatedly, many felt, into the Second World War, their arguments became somewhat discredited after that conflict. Of late; however, historians such as Benjamin O. Fordham have reconsidered them, using more refined economic data to suggest they may have validity. US exports doubled as a percentage of the GNP between 1914 and 1916, and 70% of them went to Europe. Within this context, the German renewal of unrestricted submarine warfare was a real catalysed for war.
…pt3
However, historians no longer tend to see economic reasons as significant. By 1916, the US economy was so healthy as a result of jumping into markets no longer met by the belligerents that, even if Allied trade had been severed, it wouldn’t have made a significant difference to US prosperity.
1950- Carl. N Deger
Carl N. Deger argued Wilson’s main reason for involvement as legalistic. Wilson’s concept of neutrality rights followed established international law and asserted that the USA should be free to trade non-contraband goods with any belligerent it chose and American citizens should be safe to sail in any ships. Wilson saw unrestricted submarine warfare as illegal in international law - in fact a crime against humanity.
1990s, Harold Evans
In the 1990s, Harold Evans argued that Wilson followed a moral principle, believing that the USA needed to fight in order to make the world a better place. He contrasted Wilson with Theodore Roosevelt who, he argues, would have gone to war earlier than Wilson in order to defeat the aggressor nation Germany, remedy US grievances and restore the balance of power. Wilson; however, went to war to destroy the old forms of diplomacy and introduce a new world order based on rights and respect for all peoples.
Ross Kennedy, 2008
Ross Kennedy, writing in 2008, developed this theme. He argued that Wilson blamed the old European reliance on the balance of power for the military expansion which had led to war. However, Wilson also recognised that the collective security he favoured could only come about if countries trusted each other. He believed in particular that Germany must return the lands it had taken and become a democracy before it could be trusted to maintain the peace. Therefore, argues Kennedy, Wilson shared the Allied war aims. Indeed, there were always a contradiction in Wilson’s earlier neutrality because he favoured the Allies over Germany.
1960s, Hugh Brogan
In the 1960s, Hugh Brogan felt the Germans left Wilson no choice but to go to war. He argued that Wilson’s alleged neutrality was anything but, and eventual involvement of the USA was inevitable. He went on to suggest that the actual timing of entry of the USA lay with Germany. In February 1917, Germany took the decision to renew unrestricted submarine warfare, hoping it would result in the defeat of Britain and France before the USA was ready to fight. This gamble failed. Once it entered the struggle; however, the aims of the USA became wider. It was fighting for a better world, where there would be no more war, rather than simply to defeat Germany and its allies. According to Brogan, the USA did not necessarily share the Allies’ war aims. Brogan quotes one editor who argued that the Allies were thieves and the Germans murderers: ‘On the whole we prefer the thieves but only as the lesser of two evils’.
Niall Ferguson - in his book Colossus in 2003
He felt that Wilson the idealist sought to construct an entirely new international order based on fairness and justice for all peoples. As early as December 1914 he had asserted that any peace settlement ‘should be for the advantage of the European nations regarded as peoples and not for any nation imposing its governmental will upon alien people’. In May 1915 he went further: ‘every nation has a right to choose the sovereignty under which they shall live’. While the sinking of the ‘Lusitania’ and unrestricted submarine warfare were undoubtedly triggers, Wilson had something more sublime in mind when he declared war.
American involvement in the war
When the USA joined the war, their expectations were largely economic propensity. However, in the first few months of the year, almost 2 million tons of shipping had been lost, 340,000 British soldiers lost or wounded.
Statistics
During the course of the war, 3.5 million were drafted, with 1.5 additional volunteers, including 260,000 african americans. Over half of these men eventually served on the Western front and over 100,000 would give their lives to war.
March 1918, only 84,000 African soldiers had arrived in Europe.
The war ending.
The war ended on the 11th of November . The Americans also contributed to the victory in other ways. When they joined the war in April 1917, allied shipping losses for that year were already 2 million tons.
All together, American had spend over 35billion on the war, and their supplies and loans to the Europeans between 1914 and 1917 had been crucial in enabling the allies to maintain the fight. The Americans may only have been in the war for 19 months and their losses may have been low in relation to other countries, but their contribution to victory was as important as their allies.
USA and peace treaties
Woodrow Wilson and his 14 points.
Wilson wanted free trade, freedom and seas and overall better international relations from his 14 points.
The peace settlement
France, Britain and America all dominated the settlement. However, they all had different ideals. France had the most punitive and vengeful attitude, but neither want too far or too soft on Germany. Britain were slightly less punitive than France and American had a more peaceful and forgiving approach.
The role of the USA in the post-war peace settlement
Beginning of 1918 - WW most famous man in the world. USA was seen as a beacon of hope for war-torn Europe, offering idealistic and democratic principles instead of the old principles of power.
Reasons for high hopes on Wilson - the USA had not suffered years of exhaustion, enormous economic and military potential - first among the great powers, no question of American guilt for starting the war - as USA involvement only begain in 1917.
WW’s personality strengthened the sense of idealism and moral purpose. His 14 points - foundations for peace.
The post-war peace settlement
Wilson - bogged down in complex negotiations with other members of the big four.They all had different priorities from Wilson - less focussed on self-determination and ‘Wilsonian idealism’ and more concerned with extending their empires and extracting reparations from defeated Germany.
Wilson - difficult to manage new nations asserting their independence from the old empires.
…pt2
Wilson - wanted to go ahead with plans of disarmament and setting up League of nations. Distracted by treaties with the five defeated powers: Germnay, Austria, Bulgaria, Turkey and Hungary.
USA signed the peace treaties - they were not accepted by Congress until August 1921. Political difficulties at home - demobilisation of US army was not carried out smoothly and instances of inter-racial violence between units, economic problems at home - inflation, people felt rewards of the war were not worth the cost.
Wilson’s management
Had Wilson handled the Republicans better, or been more willing to compromise, he might have got the League of Nations accepted.
Retreat to isolationism
Wilson returned from Paris - different national mood. He clung to his idealistic principles about the League but faced opposition.
Public opposition due to - natural reaction of war-weariness, from committed isolationists from some senators who convinced the Senate to vote against LON.
WW vs Lodge
Lodge was not an isolationist he just wanted USA to be a world power but not in an organisation outside national control, WW stubbornly insisted that LON was the way forward. The clash then became a clash of personalities as well as policy disagreement.
What is isolationism described as?
America’s longstanding reluctance to get involved in European alliances and wars.
Reasons for isolationism
-The experiences at war.
-117,000 Americans killed in WWI.
-Disillusionment with Wilson’s post-war peace-making in France.
-The subsequent economic downturn.
-Growing fear of communism.
Which direction?
-1919, USA tried to follow ‘independent internationalism’
-Active involvement with other nations (protect economic investments and trade), but freedom of action to protect national interests (prevent another war which would disrupt trade and domestic stability). Best of both worlds
-Foreign policy emphasised preventing war by controlling the arms race and maintaining American economic supremacy
-Would have to be involved in Europe, the Far East and Latin America
Problems with foreign policy at the time
-How to keep political and economic control in Latin America.
-How to contain America, but allow it to recover economic stability and be part of the world financial system.
-How to reassure France about its security as Germany recovered.
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Problems with foreign policy at the time
-How to keep political and economic control in Latin America.
-How to contain America, but allow it to recover economic stability and be part of the world financial system.
-How to reassure France about its security as Germany recovered.
-How to recover War debts (mainly owed to America) from the Allies, and reparations from Germany.
-How to manage competition in the Far East, especially China, and particularly how to persuade Japan to respect European/ American interests.
-How to cope with the Soviet Union and its revolutionary beliefs.
Did Conferences and Treaties Resolve America’s worries about foreign involvement?
-Avoided isolationism trough trade, the spread of American culture and initiating international action e.g.
-USA lead conferences on arms control
Active support for ‘open-door’ trading policy for China
-Refused to recognise any anti-democratic communist regime
-Offers of humanitarian aid for the famines suffered in the Soviet Union in 1923
-Recovery of war debts, since USA was owed the most
It achieved this through:
-The Dawes Plan, 1924 – A financial plan created by America to deal with the problems of reparations which reduced Germany’s reparations payments.
-The Locarno Pact, 1925 – Pact which agreed boundaries between Germany, France, and Belguim.
-The Kellogg-Briand Pact, 1928 – France still mistrusted Germany. The pact was signed by 62 signatories pledging to settle disputes peacefully and agreed that war was a last resort and only in self defence. However there was no power behind the agreement so in effect it was meaningless
The Washington Conference 1921-1922
-A US set up conference involving Britain, France, Japan, Italy, China, Portugal, Belgium and the Netherlands to discuss the arms race.
-Arms production led to war and put strains on economies trying to repay War debts.
-America was also anxious to control Japan. Charles E Hughes proposed deliberately destroying ships and each country agreed to destroy a certain amount of shipping.
Three treaties were set up
Three treaties were set up:
The Five Power Treaty
–Limited the capacity of American, British, Japanese, French and Italian navies.
The Four Power Treaty
–Ended the Anglo-Japanese alliance and offered consultation by America, Britain, Japan, and France in the event of an Asian Crisis.
The Nine Power Treaty
–Established “Open Door” principles for Trade as international law.
Good Neighbour policy AIMS
-Remove military occupations.
-Support strong leaders, with training if necessary
-End the Platt Amendment of 1901, which gave the USA the right to intervene in Cuban affairs.
-Respect international treaties regarding non-intervention in other state affairs.
-Give more support for economic development so that Latin America would become less dependent on Germany, Italy and Japan.
-Initiate a policy of Pan-Americanisation- setting out policies of non-intervention by one nation in the affairs of another.
Opposition
-Some argued America’s string-arm tactics in supporting dictators went undiminished.
-Somoza in Nicaragua, in the Dominican Republic and Batista in Cuba were favoured as leaders
prepared to support American interests as long as
USA was not too concerned about their corrupt and brutal methods of keeping power.
-Mexico- nearest and the richest of America’s neighbours, strikes against US corporations for higher wages by oil workers in 1937.
When these demands were refused – President Cardenas nationalised the oil company’s properties.
-Threat to America – Mexico buying Japanese and German goods.
Did the USA retreat into isolationism in the 1930’s?
By 1932 American ‘independent isolationism’ was fading and there was now a widespread desire for isolationism.
American’s were reluctant to deal with issues abroad and many felt it was best to ‘let them get on with it’.
This was a result of:
1) More aggressive methods being used by nations such as Germany, Japan and Italy to reach their ambitions.
2) There was still a sense of ‘never again’ lingering after WW1, this made many American’s reluctant to consider re-arming.
3) The ending of mass immigration after 1924 reinforced beliefs that American’s could be successful on their own.
4) The Wall Street Crash weakened world economies and made political and economic stability more desirable.
5) Hoover focused more on coping with the Depression that with foreign events
Moving away from Isolationism
Despite the popularity of isolationism, Secretary of State Hull believed in the importance of world trade for both peace and the revival of America’s economy.
In 1934 he introduced:
The Reciprocal Trade Act: reduced tariffs by 50% through special agreements with ‘most favoured’ nations.
The Export-Import Bank: a government agency set up to give loans to foreigners wanting to buy American goods.
1920s - evidence for America being isolationist
-The US senate refusing to join the LON.
-Growing fear of communism after Bolshevik revolution in 1917.
-Wanted to maintain robust army.
-Protect trade interests and the monroe doctrine.
-The Kellogg Braind Pact, 1928 to strengthen relations with France.
-Immigration law e.g - emergency quota act 19121, national origins act 1924 and the immigration act of 1929.
1930 - evidence for USA being interventionalist
-Dawes and Young Plans- financial support.
-International disarmament with Washington naval disarmament conference.
-USA wanted to prevent the renewal of the Anglo-Japanese alliance in 1922.
-USA found it difficult to get involved in European due to the treaty of versailles effects.
-1924, USA were sending delegates to LON conferences.
-Economic involvement with Latin America.
-Five-power treaty.
