AS. Miles - 2. The impact of political change. Flashcards
1
Q
The rise of Thomas Cromwell.
A
-Born in 1475 to a London landlord
-Had no formal education
-Travelled widely, fighting for the French in Italy
-Learned about trade working with merchants in Italy
-Became a lawyer for wealthy merchants, despite no training
-Started working for Wolsey as his lawyer by 1524
-Cromwell became an MP in 1525
-Became Wolsey’s personal secretary in 1527
-Instrumental in persuading Henry to divorce in 1529
-Appointed to the Privy Council in 1531
-Becomes Master of the Jewel House in 1532
-He’s also Chief Minister by 1532
2
Q
How was ‘personal monarchy’ different to ‘bureaucratic government’?
A
Elton gives the argument that personal monarchy saw the monarch directly involved in decision making through their offices in the Court, whereas bureaucratic monarchy saw specialist offices and trained officials deal with routine matters of government.
Henry was probably a mix of both, getting involved when things personally interested him.
3
Q
How does Starkey counter-argue Elton’s argument
that Cromwell oversaw a revolution in government?
A
Starkey agrees that Cromwell was responsible for
setting up new institutions to deal with the Break
from Rome, but he says it’s debatable whether
Cromwell was fully responsible or whether these
institutions were already in place but just not used
effectively.
4
Q
How was Henry VIII’s Privy Council different to his father’s Royal Council?
A
The Royal Council was a meeting of varied nobles and clergy who would advise Henry VII on major issues, whilst Cromwell streamlined the Privy Council to no more than 20 members, included more trained personnel like lawyers and accountants.
This is an example of there being a revolution in government.
5
Q
How did the Tudor’s method of money-management compare to that of the previous House of York?
A
They both managed finances personally through the Privy Chamber instead of through a separate Exchequer and Treasury.
No real revolution here, although new bodies are set up to manage new finances from the Church that would usually go to Rome.
6
Q
What role did the three new Courts of Augmentations, First Fruits and Tenths (FFT) and Wards play in managing finances?
A
Augmentations managed land taken from the Church, FFT handled payments that the Church used to make to the Pope and Wards managed money taken from minors who were not old enough to inherit their fathers land.
Definite of revolution in government, although they were a necessity given the outcomes of the break with Rome.
7
Q
Power of the Crown
A
8
Q
What excuse did Henry give for setting up the Act in Restraint of Appeals in 1533?
A
He argued that England was an empire and as such, everyone owed the King and not God their obedience.
9
Q
What parts of Britain were allowed semi autonomy?
A
The North (Durham) and Wales.
10
Q
What Act ensured that Wales officially adopted English rule of law?
A
1536 Act of union.
11
Q
What Act removed autonomy for extreme regions of England?
A
Act against liberties (freedom) and franchises.
12
Q
Role of Parliament.
A
13
Q
What had parliament traditionally been used for before Henry VIII?
A
Mostly used to generate money.
14
Q
Why was the Reformation Parliament, that met in 1529, so different than its predecessors?
A
It sat for seven continuous years and passed more laws than ever before.
15
Q
How many times did a Bill now need to pass through Parliament before it became an Act?
A
Three times.
16
Q
Cromwell’s government policies.
A
17
Q
Law and order
A
Abolished ‘Sanctuary in 1540’
18
Q
Finance
A
Court of Augmentation set up in 1536 to deal with income from monastic lands.
Crown income doubles to 300, 000.
19
Q
Administration.
A
Administration moved more from Privy Chamber to stand alone, specialist departments.
20
Q
Privy council.
A
This had been streamlined to 20 from 70 people by 1536.
21
Q
Wales.
A
Act of Union of 1536 officially brought Wales under English control.
Second Act of Union of 1543 made English official language of legal system.
22
Q
The North.
A
The Council of the North gained far more power in 1536 after Pilgrimage of Grace.
King now had far more say in the North.
23
Q
The fall of Thomas Cromwell.
A
(Haven’t got yet)
24
Q
Political change and legislation under Henry VIII
A
25
What was the ‘Tudor Revolution’?
-Historian Elton identifies a ‘Tudor Revolution’.
-Between 1532-1540.
-Transition from Medieval to modern government.
-Financial departments are reorganised.
-Privy Council is created.
-Government by the king replaced with government under the king.
-Parliament now responsible for law making.
-New laws had to pass through as an Act of Parliament.
-Act of Supremacy took power from the Church and gave it to the State.
-Outlying regions brought under control…Acts of Union and Council of the North.
26
How did Henry VIII’s government work?
The Privy Council, which had about twenty members, handled the routine matters of state. Although Henry himself drew up its agendas,
he never attended its meetings. The Lord Chancellor or Sir William Paget, the Comptroller of the King’s Household, would seek the King’s
approval on the various matters under discussion.
27
Use of the dry stamp
In the later years of his reign, Henry allowed various Gentlemen of the Chamber the use of the ‘dry stamp’ on official documents.
This was a ‘forged’ King’s signature that was only ever given to three men at one time.
28
Faction
-A faction was a group of people who sought to advance shared interests, either positive or negative.
-Positive interests might include gaining or keeping privileges, grants or jobs for themselves or their associates; negative interests included denying such things to their rivals.
29
..pt2
-The most longstanding faction throughout Henry’s reign was the Aragonese faction, who supported the rights and position of the humiliated Queen Catherine of Aragon.
--Other examples were:
-The Boleyn faction, who orchestrated Wolsey’s demise because he would not or could not obtain a divorce for Henry and Catherine, to enable Henry to marry Anne Boleyn.
-The conservatives under Norfolk and Gardiner, who tried to dispense with Archbishop Cranmer in 1543, and who tried to have Catherine Parr arrested for being a heretic in 1546.
30
Privy Council Factions in the 1540s
31
The conservatives
Names
-Duke of Norfolk, Bishop Gardiner, Sir Thomas Wriothesley, Lord Russell, Earl of Surrey (Norfolk’s son).
Aims
-A Counter-Reformation, Catholicism and personal
gain.
Tactics
Engineered the Catherine Howard marriage, 1540.
She was executed for treason in 1541. Attempted
unsuccessfully to oust Catherine Parr and Cranmer
from Power, but Henry intervened to save them.
32
The Reformers
Names
-Earl of Hertford, John Dudley, Sir Anthony Denny, Sir William Paget, Archbishop Cranmer.
Aims.
-Protestant reform and personal gain
Tactics.
-Achieved the Catherine Parr marriage 1543. Denny obtained use of the dry stamp to alter Henry’s will
after his death. Two clauses were added, which helped Hertford to establish himself as Protector in the minority of Edward VI. Norfolk and Surrey were accused of treason for Surrey’s use of badges which suggested he had a claim to the throne.
33
Patronage
-It has been calculated that there were some 200 posts at court that it was worth a gentleman having. The King and Wolsey/Cromwell would
decide who got those jobs.
-Sir Ralph Egerton – an example of someone who was ‘elevated by patronage and humbled by faction’.
-A prime example of the courtiers who profited and fell on the whim of the king.
34
Financial administration.
-Court of Exchequer oversaw income from fines and duties.
-Duchy of Lancaster oversaw income from Crown land.
-Courts of First Fruits and Tenths and Augmentation oversaw new income from the
Church.
35
Creation the privy council.
-King’s Medieval council were very large and unstructured.
-Tudors set up streamlined, permanent council of no more than 20.
-They ran the government.
36
Role of Parliament.
-By endorsing the Act of Supremacy, Parliament had been seen to allow the break from Rome.
-Parliament had now cemented their position as the supreme power in England and Wales, over the Church.
37
Control of the regions.
-Council of the North and Acts of Union centralised control of these 2 large regions.
-Administration in the regions was usually carried out by unpaid gentry and clerics, meaning it was often ineffective.
38
1540-47: the end of the reign
-The last years of Henry’s reign should not be underestimated in terms of the King’s grip on power.
-He was increasingly suffering from ill-health – still played a role.
-E.g. In 1540 Henry elevated Cromwell to the earldom of Essex and made him Great Chamberlain, but within two months Cromwell was accused of treason and executed.
-He married three more times in the space of as many years.
-As Henry no longer wished to have a chief minister, the government of the country was in the hands of Henry when he felt moved enough to be
involved, particularly on religious and foreign policy matters.
-Privy Council was riven by faction.
39
Issues connected with edward VI's accession and minority government.
40
Henry VIII and the Succession 1544-7
Henry’s major concern in his final years was the succession. Since 1527 he had been obsessed with the need to safeguard the dynasty by leaving a male heir to succeed him. The birth of Prince Edward in 1537 had seemed to achieve this objective. By 1546 the king’s declining health made it clear that his son would come to the throne as a minor.
41
The Succession Act of 1544
Well before his death, Henry took steps to ensure his son’s safe succession. He had dealt with the lingering possibility of rival claimants by executing members of the Pole family and by his violent response to the Earl of Surrey’s attempts to promote his family’s interests. Henry had also ensured that the succession of Edward was secure in law. The Succession Act, approved by parliament in 1543 but not given royal assent until February 1544, named Edward as heir, with Mary, the
Elizabeth, as next in line should he fail to survive or produce children. After that, the succession would go to the Suffolk family, thus ruling out the infant Mary Queen of Scots.
42
...pt2
To avoid any possible disputes Henry made a
final settlement of the succession in his will of 1546. This replaced the Succession Acts of 1534, 1536 and 1544, although the terms of the will were similar to the Act of 1544.
Henry’s major concern in his will was to secure the peaceful succession of his son and safeguard the royal supremacy. By 1546 it had become clear that the surest way to achieve this, and so prevent a power struggle, was to give authority to Seymour
and his supporters.
43
Factionalism and the succession, 1546-1547
44
conservative faction
-Accepted the break with Rome and opposed doctrinal changes.
-Led by the Duke of Norfolk and Bishop of Winchester.
-Associated with:
. passing of the six articles act, 1539.
. fall of Thomas Cromwell.
. Catherine Howard, henry's 5th wife.
. Plot against Cranmer 1543
. Plot against Catherine Parr 1546
45
reform faction
-Accepted the break with Rome, seeing it as an opportunity to introduce protestant policies in the doctrine.
-Led by Edward Seymour Archbishop cranmer.
-Associated with :
. Foreign policy success in Scotland
. fall of Catherine Howard.
. Catherine Parr, Henry's sixth wife.
. plot against Gardiner 1544
. arrest of Norfolk 1546
46
Which faction was dominant by 1547?
By the final year of Henry’s reign the reform faction was dominant. Catherine Parr had survived and Edward Seymour had built his position in court.
47
Why was Gardiner’s career in decline?
Gardiner’s career was in decline because:
-He had been accused by the reformers of suggesting that the Pope should be reinstated as the Head of the Church.
-He became involved in a plot against Catherine Parr.
-Refused to grant some of his lands to the king.
48
What role was Sir Anthony Denny given?
Sir Anthony Denny was made Chief Gentleman of the King’s Privy Chamber.
49
Describe Denny’s role in the final months of Henry’s life.
As Henry’s illnesses during his last months kept him largely confined to his private apartments, Denny’s role became crucial. He tended to Henry’s needs and spent much time with the King. He also decided whether Henry was fit to receive visitors and who should be admitted.
50
What was the Dry Stamp and how did Denny use it?
The dry stamp was an impression of the King’s signature.
Using the stamp, the reform faction, led by Seymour and Denny, could legalise any document they chose – including an altered version of Henry’s will. The revised will left the succession as Henry agreed in the 1544 Succession Act, but added provisions that strengthened the power of the Regency Council established to rule on Edward VI’s
behalf.
51
What happened to the Duke of Norfolk and Earl of Surrey?
The Duke of Norfolk and Earl of Surrey were arrested and charged with Treason.
This along with the fall of Gardiner meant the end of the Conservative Faction and the triumph of the Reform Faction.
52
How was the regency to be managed (Henry’s will)?
By the terms of the will, the regency was to be managed by a council of sixteen men, named by Henry.
Dominated by Reform Faction.
53
Who led the Regency?
The Earl of Herford seemed the best placed for leadership. He was Edward’s uncle, an important figure within the reform faction, successful military career.
He later adopted the title Duke of Somerset.
He used the power granted to the council in Henry’s will to promote supporters with new titles and positions in government. Finally, he started to appoint his own Privy Council.
54
Faction and its impact during the rule of Somerset and Northumberland
55
Factions under Henry
With the fall of Cromwell in 1540, Henry decided not to appoint another Chief Minister. The period has an increasing struggle between the conservative and reform factions.
56
Factions under Edward VI
It can be argued that factional unrest under Edward had a greater impact than at any other time in the mid-Tudor period.
This was particularly true from the late summer of 1549, when serious social unrest engulfed much of the country, to 1552, when Dudley (Northumberland) emerged triumphant.
57
...pt2
-Although the reformist faction led by Somerset had triumphed in the last year of Henry’s reign, his position was not unchallenged.
-War with Scotland, economic problems and religious uncertainty all made Somerset’s position difficult.
-His leadership style caused resentment among men such as Paget, Dudley and Wriothesley – led to the formation of an anti-Somerset faction.
58
...pt3
The anti-Somerset faction had little in common:
-Wriothesley was a religious conservative; he had personal reasons to attack Somerset, as he had been removed from the Privy Council in March 1549.
-Paget was religiously neutral.
-Dudley was a reformer.
-The events of 1549 (the Western Rebellion and Ketts Rebellion) provided all three with the opportunity they were looking for.
59
...pt4
-Following the rebellions, Somerset issued a proclamation on 5th October, calling loyal subjects to Hampton Court to defend him and the King against.
-He was removed, with Dudley replacing him, BUT he was not trusted.
-He therefore turned on his former allies in order to save himself, and by February 1550 the conservative members of the faction were removed.
-In order to survive, needed to ally himself with religious radicals; a decision which would have far reaching consequences.
60
Faction and its impact during the rule of Somerset and Northumberland.
61
Who was Edward and how influential was he?
-Edward was born 1537 to Jane Seymour.
-He became king on Henry’s death, aged 9.
-He was a serious child.
-He was strong in academia and the arts.
-He gained more influence on the Regency Council as he grew older.
-By the time he was 16 he was self assured and confident.
62
...pt2
Venetian ambassador commented ‘I’ve never seen such a young king so involved in government’.
He was a sickly boy in his final year and died in 1553 of tuberculosis.
Experts believe he would have made a very good king.
63
...pt3
-At just 9 years old in 1547, Edward’s power was limited.
-Somerset was strict, limited his household and pocket money, and kept him under close watch.
-Somerset ruled using the Dry Stamp and Proclamations.
-Somerset assumed the role of an autocratic leader.
-Edward feigned illness after Somerset ‘kidnapped’ him.
-Edward proclaimed that Somerset threatened to incite rebellion.
-So, Edward had little influence, but did contribute to Somerset’s downfall from 1547-49.
64
How did Somerset come to power?
-Henry wanted 16 members in Edward’s Council.
-Norfolk and Stephen Gardiner were expelled from the Council.
-It was imbalanced in favour of the Protestant reformist faction.
-Somerset was soon in charge of the Council as Lord Protector.
-He was the King’s uncle, a proven military leader and was a favourite of Henry.
-Somerset kept Henry’s Will secret until he had secured his authority.
-He had the able William Paget as his assistant.
65
What dilemmas did Somerset face?
66
first dilemma
Should war with Scotland resume?
-England feared a Scottish alliance with France .
-But had spent millions on it. Appetite for war was limited.
67
second dilemma
Should religion be reformed along Protestant lines?
-Reformists outnumbered conservatives and calls for reform grew.
-Reform was risky as England and Europe remained mostly Catholic.
68
third dilemma
Should economic and social reform be priority?
-Enclosures and price rises led to discontent.
-Attacking enclosures meant an attack on the gentry.
69
Somerset’s style of government
-Somerset mostly ruled by proclamation, more than other Tudor monarchs.
-Through 70 proclamations in three years, he passed many laws without Parliament’s permission.
-Some would view this negatively, seeing him as an autocratic leader.
-He would insist that the Dry Stamp was used as well as king’s signature.
-He flooded government with men appointed by himself, increasing his influence.
70
...pt2
-19 of the extended Council would later accuse him of ‘evil’ and ‘ambition’.
-Somerset would by-pass the Privy Council, using his own assistants to govern.
-As before, Parliament had limited power, but was used to pass religious laws.
71
How effectively did Somerset rule England from 1547-1549? (part 1) of many
-Somerset was ruthless. He manipulated his close relationship with Henry to ensure that his death
could be kept quiet, and that he, Denny and Paget could alter Henry’s will and form a Council that
was more favourable to reformists.
-Somerset was keen to avoid war with Scotland, but his over-ambitious actions in the north eventually contributed to his downfall.
72
(part 2)
-Somerset inherited a religious climate that was uncertain and in limbo. He did well to start a slow
and cautious change to Protestantism, that could be accepted by Catholics and Protestants alike.
-Although ruthless and ambitious, Somerset was sympathetic to the plight of the commoners, which
won him some support amongst the lower orders. However, it was this sympathy for the poor which also contributed to his downfall, with many believing that he encouraged rebellion and unrest.
73
(part 3)
-Many argue that by ruling mostly by proclamation and bringing the Privy Council into his own household, Somerset ruled like an autocratic dictator, whilst some argue that he was decisive and gave England clear leadership.
-Ultimately, most historians argue that Somerset was too autocratic, ambitious and selfish as a
leader, making him an ineffective leader.
74
Who was Somerset and how did he rule?
-Regency Council of 16 members set up by Henry… conservatives and reformists.
-The Council needed a chief executive and Seymour was soon nominated.
-He lobbied for nominations and was helped by being Edward’s uncle.
-By February of 1547, Seymour had secured title of Lord Protector.
-Seymour was also given the title of Duke of Somerset and monastic lands.
75
...pt2
-Some saw Seymour as a humanitarian and others as greedy.
-He followed traditional Tudor system of government.
-Used royal prerogative to declare war and for diplomacy.
-Made new laws through proclamations when Parliament wasn’t in session.
-Otherwise, used consent of houses of Parliament for taxes, religion and new laws.
76
How was the country governed under Somerset?
-Privy Council run day to day affairs.
-Chosen from nobles, clergy and gentry.
-Civil servants worked below the Privy Council to administer government.
-The Council of Wales and Council of the North was overseen by Privy Council.
-Local government in the rest of England was run by the nobility and clergy.
77
...pt2
-If the nobility protested in the Council, they could refuse to carry out duties.
-Seymour was left to deal with Scotland and to form alliance through marriage.
-The mainly moderate Council was also pressured to make Protestant reform.
-Finances were drained by war by 1547, taking more monastic land a solution.
78
What problems faced Somerset as Lord Protector?
-Another problem was an increasing population.
-More people meant demand for goods increased and so in turn did prices.
-This led to inflation, which was a problem as wages didn’t increase in turn.
-Increased population, without an increase in employment, led to vagrancy.
-With increased harvest failures in this period, prices increased even further.
79
...pt2
-Somerset’s government were concerned with stemming social discontent.
-The Treason Act of 1547 overturned heresy and censorship laws of 1539 6 Articles.
-People could speak freely on religion and publish what they wanted, leading to the spreading of Protestant ideology.
-This was Somerset’s first step in reforming the Church in England.
80
...pt2
-Somerset’s government were concerned with stemming social discontent.
-The Treason Act of 1547 overturned heresy and censorship laws of 1539 6 Articles.
-People could speak freely on religion and publish what they wanted, leading to the spreading of Protestant ideology.
-This was Somerset’s first step in reforming the Church in England.
81
Somerset, politics and Acts of Parliament
-Whilst passing the Treason Act, inadvertently, violence rose as people debated religion with new vigour.
-The Treason Act allowed Somerset to rule by proclamation more so than before.
-The Chantries Act of 1547 provided much needed revenue for Somerset.
-Confiscated gold and silver was used to make coins and along with debasement of coinage, inflation continued with value of coins decreasing.
-Vagrancy Act of 1547 was very harsh on able-bodied poor, was not administered by many authorities and tarnished Somerset’s reputation.
-Enclosures were becoming a prominent issue, not tackled effectively by Somerset.
82
Summary - Somerset - effective
-Respected reputation- Had been General of the North.
-Was Edward’s uncle and keeper of Henry’s will so was trusted.
-He decreased influence of conservatives and put his own men in place, increasing his control.
-Champion of the people- Supported enclosure
protests.
-Use of the Dry Stamp meant he could oversee all
changes and maintain total control.
-Population growth, bad harvests and inflation were not his fault.
83
Summary - Somerset - ineffective
-Relied too much on proclamations- passed 70, like
a dictator.
-Parliament were not happy about this.
-Even his own council turned against him and his
autocratic leadership.
-Some felt that leniency towards enclosure campaigners and allowing more freedom of speech encouraged rebellions.
84
How effective did Northumberland control government between 1550-1553?
85
Edward’s role in government under Northumberland
-Edward gained a far more significant role after Somerset’s fall.
-Edward was attending Privy Council sessions regularly by 1552.
-He even set the agenda at some meetings.
-His ability meant Council agreed to make him king when he was 16.
-Northumberland was careful to learn from mistakes of Somerset and treat him well.
-He gave himself title of President of the Council instead of Protector.
-However, Edward was still controlled and his power was limited.
-His biggest intervention came on his insistence of his succession.
86
Why did Somerset fall from power?
-The Council were fed up by his refusal to delegate and consult the Council.
-He favoured his own men in key positions and ruled from ‘Protector’s Palace’.
-Failure to secure stable relations through foreign policy blamed on Somerset.
-He was seen as being too soft on commoners, evident through rebellions.
-Conservatives Arundel and Southampton mustered an army against Somerset.
-He was imprisoned by October 1549.
87
How did John Dudley rise to power?
-Dad Edmund was Henry VII’s financial minister and executed by Henry VIII.
-Not especially religious, but ambitious.
-Held various positions under Henry VIII.
-He won acclaim as a military man in conflict with France and Scotland.
-Became Lord Chamberlain for Edward on Henry’s death.
-Suppresses Kett’s Rebellion in August 1549.
-Becomes Lord President of Council in January 1550.
-Given title Duke of Northumberland in 1551.
-Tried and executed by Mary in 1553.
88
What were Northumberland’s greatest issues?
-Continue war with Scotland and France or bring to an end?
..Continue and save face or stop and save money!
-Continue debasement, sell crown lands or raise taxes?
..Debasement increases inflation, selling land decreases rent, tax causes unrest.
-Push towards total Protestantism or maintain a moderate version?
..Appease the unhappy reformers or the unhappy conservatives.
-Relieve poverty or enhance strict vagrancy laws?
..Relief could embolden the poor, as Somerset had done, and lead to unrest.
89
Northumberland’s style of government
-Northumberland was known for doing whatever it took to survive.
-William Cecil and John Gates were key members of his household.
-He used the Council far more than Somerset, but maintained power by assigning himself the title ‘Lord President’.
-His reliance on the Council led to a revival of the Privy Council.
-He used his position to replace Catholics with Protestants in the Council.
-Parliament was used, like Somerset, to ratify new religious laws mostly.
90
Summary - Northumberland - effective
-Northumberland was known for doing whatever it took to survive.
-William Cecil and John Gates were key members of his household.
-He used the Council far more than Somerset, but maintained power by assigning himself the title ‘Lord President’.
-His reliance on the Council led to a revival of the Privy Council.
-He used his position to replace Catholics with Protestants in the Council.
-Parliament was used, like Somerset, to ratify new religious laws mostly.
91
Summary - Northumberland - ineffective
-Dudley’s downfall and ineffectiveness came with
his scheming and plotting around the succession
after Edward’s imminent death.
-He would marry his son to Edward’s cousin,
Edward’s chosen heir, Lady Jane Grey
-Mary Tudor would arrest Dudley and execute
him, along with his son and Jane Grey.
