AS. Doughton - Italy (taken out of exam spec) Flashcards
intro- Liberal Italy problems pre WWI
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Unification of Italy
-Not until 1861 that the kingdom of Italy was set
up.
-Risorgimento – the resurgence, or Italy rising up
again is the term used to describe the process of
unification between 1859 and 1870.
The new Liberal state
-By 1870 political unification had occurred,
however only 2% had the vote (middle
class).
-Liberals saw themselves as educated elite
who would lead Italy to a great power
status, greater prosperity and national
unity.
What is ‘Liberal?’
Liberal - relating to or denoting a political and
social philosophy that promotes individual
rights, civil liberties, democracy, and free
enterprise. Conservative version of liberal.
New Italy a monarch rather than a republic as
they envisaged.
Liberal Italy - Lack of identity
Only 2% of populace spoke Italian.
Economic weakness
68% dependent on land
Lack of natural resources
Catholic church
Pope refused to recognise the Italian state – boycott elections
Political weakness
No 2 party system
29 PM between 1870-1922
Form coalition regardless of beliefs (trasformismo =
bribery and pressure)
Opposition to liberals.
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Socialists
Wanted better pay and working conditions.
Italian Socialist Party (PSI) had 27,000 members by 1897.
Criticised Liberals – said wages were still low and poverty widespread. Believed people emigrated
because of liberals.
Catholics
Increasingly worried over the rise in popularity of socialist party.
Church lifted ban on Catholics voting in General elections and encouraged that they should get involved in politics.
Criticised Liberals - poverty still remained; however many Catholics preferred Liberal party to the alternative Socialist party.
Nationalists
Middle class wealthy people wanted a larger empire in Africa and more spending on military.
Early influence on Fascism.
Criticised Liberals – lacked the motivation to make Italy a major force. Believed high emigration down to national disgrace.
The main threats to the stability of the Liberal governments in Italy after 1918.
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The impacts of WWI
-Support from Nationalists. Lacked support of masses.
-5 million served. Mostly rural. Industrial working class exempt.
-Low pay. Small rations. Appalling conditions.
-Heavy casualties - 460,000 killed with 955,000 injured.
-After 2 years, its army cracked under a surprise Austro-German attack.
Battle of Caparetto
700,000 retreat in disorder for over 100 miles until the line was held at the river plate.
300,000 taken as prisoners.
Nationalists blamed the government in inefficiency and incompetence in running war and in supplying the troops.
Victory at the Battle of Vittorio Venetto, Austria sue for peace.
Armistice signed on 3rd November 1918.
Impact of ‘Mutilated victory’.
-Nationalists believed weak liberal govt would fail to defend Italian interests at the peace conference.
-Should receive territories agreed with entente. And Fiume.
-Treaty of St Germain did cede Austrian land.
-GB and US refuse to hand over Fiume – Nationalists blamed liberal weakness.
…pt2
-Denied Dalmatia and would not share in the division of German colonies in Africa, Nationalists were outraged.
-To them, Italy had been cheated. Had only one Italy a ‘Mutilated Victory’ and Liberalism was the culprit.
-Mutilated Victory – the claim that Italy had been denied its rightful territorial gains in the peace settlement after WW1.
…pt3
-Demobilised soldiers – peace settlement further humiliation. Many feared the expansionist Italy they fought for was being undermined by a weak govt.
-Believed their Italy was falling into the hands of socialist revolutionaries.
-Other methods would need to be used to achieve a powerful Italy.
Economic problems, strikes and unemployment.
-Italians disappointed with outcomes. Severe problems left by war.
-Inflation – Massive financial cost of war – Huge sums borrowed form GB and USA. National debt increased (16b lira in 1914 to 85 billion in 1918).
-Money borrowed inadequate. Govt resorted to printing money.
Dramatic effect. Prices quadruple during war.
…pt2
-Inflation destroyed savings, hitting middle class in particular. Landowners relying on rent and state employers whose wages did not keep up also
suffered. Also, factory workers.
-Industrialists did well – war production. As inflation increased they raised prices. Govt continued to buy their products. However, victory meant end of easy profits. Hard times lay ahead for industries.
…pt3
-Industrial disputes – Wave of labour militancy.
Wartime discipline in the factories, enforced by
military, was relaxed.
-Workers who resented the long hours, low wages,
ban on industrial action vented their frustration.
-During 1919 over a million workers took part in
strikes and the membership of Socialist trade unions shot up from ¼ million in 1918 to two million in 1920.
-Unemployment – Soldiers returning from home
plunged into this deteriorating economic situation.
Industries did not take on new workers.
-Unemployment broke 2m mark during 1919.
Soldiers felt poor reward for their sacrifices.
Fear of socialism. (socialist threat)
-Economy worsened, political divisions widened.
-Industrial workers flocked to socialist party (50,000 in 1914 to 200,000 by 1919).
-Advocated revolution. Inspired by Russian Revolution. Socialists call for overthrow of the
Liberal state.
-Goal – a ‘socialist republic’. Private businesses and landed estates would be confiscated and wealth shared.
-1919 congress – use of violence for proletariat to overthrow the bourgeoisie.
…pt2
-Elections of Nov 1919 – first under universal male suffrage – the Socialists swept through the northern cities. 32.4% of votes. Win 156 seats. Now largest party.
-Many middle class Italians terrified. Many conservative Italians disgusted that govt doing nothing to meet the threat. Instead of using the power of the state to crush strikes, the liberal govt of Francesco Nitti was urging industrialists to make concessions.
…pt3
-Shop keepers alienated in June 1919 – government surrender to rioters protesting against food prices. The govt had set up food committees that had requisitioned supplies and set prices. The continuing inflation that provoked the food riots – taken to be proof of government incompetence.
-Landowners – appalled by govt’s failure to halt spread of revolution in countryside. Many peasants occupying uncultivated land and farming it for themselves.
-Agricultural labourers were joining Socialist trade unions and demanding higher wages.
Bienno Rossa
The socialist threat is referred to as Bienno Rossa - Meaning the two red years.
Impact of seizure of Fiume.
-Sept 1919 – Nationalist intellectual Gabriele D’Annunzio led 2000 armed men into the city of Fiume and occupied it in defiance of the Italian
govt.
-Nationalists and many ex-soldiers hailed him as the embodiment of the Italy they wanted to create.
-Way to achieve results – Act decisively and not be afraid to use force.
…pt2
Liberal govt did not use troops to end
the occupation.
D’Annunzio ruled Fiume for over a
year.
Public hero. Model for Mussolini.
Summary
-Due to the First World War Italy was vulnerable.
-Extreme groups were offering Italians a
way out of the dire economic situation.
-Fascists developed as a political force.
-Liberal government were threatened by
the rising Socialist party (PSI).
Mussolini and the rise of Fascism.
.
What is Fascism?
The first Fascist movement was founded by Mussolini in Italy but similar movements developed elsewhere. Fascism has been seen as a response to the political and economic tensions in much of Europe after WW1 but it has also risen in other countries at times of strain.
Fascism is normally viewed as a right-wing movement but initially some ideas were similar to
left wing ideologies as there were some anti capitalist views within it.
What factors led to the rise in Fascism?
-Fascist type ideas developed pre 1914.
-WW1 vital catalyst in fascist development.
-Many countries emerged from war with a profound sense of grievance.
-Fascism fed on nationalist grievances.
-Boosted by economic misery and the perceived weakness of democratic regimes.
…pt2
-The war produced in Russia a communist Revolution.
-Fascists gained support by pledging themselves to resist communism.
-Fascism only attracted mass support when there was a serious communist threat.
Mussolini and the birth of fascism
-Mussolini had nothing but hatred for Liberalism and Socialism.
-Although a former Socialist, the war had convinced him that Italy needed a regime that would end the struggle between social classes and, unlike the Liberals, provide dynamic leadership.
Creation of the Fascist movement.
By early 1919 Mussolini believed that it was time to translate his rhetoric into action. Accordingly, in March, he called the inaugural meeting of a new movement, the Fasci de Combattimento, or ‘Combat Groups’. Only about 100 people came to Milan for the meeting. They represented a wide range of political views, including nationalists,
republican, anarchists and radical poets and painters.
…pt2
They had little in common except a hatred of the Liberal state and a contempt for the class struggle rhetoric of the Socialists. Nevertheless, they did manage to draw up a political programme that contained both demands for an expansionist Italy and the following, leftist, statements of intent: A new national assembly to be set up, abolition of monarchy etc.
Early failure
In the 1919 election, the
Fascists fared disastrously
and won no seats. Mussolini
won only two % of the vote
in Milan.
Italian problems in 1920
In 1920 the veteran politician Giolitti became premier. He soon faced problems. In September workers occupied factories across northern Italy. Employers demanded government action. Fearing that the use of force would result in a bloodbath, Giolitti stood aloof, hoping that the occupation would collapse of its own accord.
…pt2
It did – but employers and conservatives did not forgive Giolitti for what they saw as cowardice and complacency. In rural areas. Land occupations
increased. Socialist power was shown in the 1920 local elections when the party won control of 25 of Italy’s 69 provinces.
How could Musso get more support? By changing his Fascist programme.
After his failure in 1919, Mussolini discarded almost the whole of his programme, embracing instead big business, the Church, the landowners and the monarchy, while holding out carrots to the working classes with talk of employers and workers’ unions
cooperating to the govern the country. Posing as bitter opponents of socialism, Fascists began to win support in north and central Italy. Many Fascist recruits were farmers who feared collectivisation of
their land. Others were ex-soldiers who disliked the fact that Italy seemed to be falling into the hands of the Socialist revolutionaries who had done their best to sabotage the war effort.
Rise in fascism 1919-1922
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Bienno Rossa - the threat of socialism.
1919-1920 were named as the two red years. This is where there was the most strikes and unrest and the fear of a socialist revolution was the biggest. This fear pushed many to support the emerging Fascists.
What was the threat?
-In 1919, 32% of the votes in the election went to the socialists, which horrified the middle classes.
-The liberals did little to pacify the workers appealing for better wages and working hours.
-September 1020 - half a million workers in Turin and Milan responded to lockout threat by occupying 300 factories and running them for a month without the bourgeoisie.
-Giolitti was always too scared to use force against the workers on strikes, as in 1920 when 400,000 workers occupied the factories.
-Occupations weren’t successful, but weakened the position of the govt in the public eye.
Mussolini’s control over Fascist Squadrismo
Local Fascist leaders like Italo Balbo built up their own power base.
-Mussolini was not behind this Fascist violence but he soon realised the political opportunities the Fascist squads offered.
-He strove to put himself at the forefront of this squadrismo by reasserting his claim to be the sole and undisputed leader of the movement.
-The Ras (local Fascist leaders) were reluctant at first, but he convinced them that their success depended on his leadership.
Electoral breakthrough : May 1921
-Giolitti saw fascism as just another political force that could be absorbed into the Liberal system. Mussolini did his best to encourage this belief.
-Giolitti offered an electoral alliance that he hoped would produce an anti-Socialist governing coalition.
-Fascists and Giolittian Liberals co-operated during the general election held in May 1921.
-Fascist squads continued with their violence about 100 Socialist sympathisers killed.
How did Mussolini become PM in 1922? (new topic area)
The elections had given Mussolini what he wanted: an air of respectability and a foothold in parliament. He had no wish to be absorbed into liberalism, to be a junior partner in a coalition, as Giolitti had intended. Consequently, he announced that the Fascists would not, after all, support Giolitti’s government.
…pt2
Mussolini now saw the possibility of achieving real power. He had no master plan but he was an extremely astute politician. He knew that he needed to demonstrate to the Italian public, to industrialists, to landowners and the middle classes in particular, that liberalist was finished as a political movement. Unstable, short-lived governments unable to maintain law and order or deal with the country’s economic problems would provide proof of this. Mussolini also had to convince these crucial groups in society that only fascism could stop the Socialists and restore order and discipline to Italian society. Furthermore, he realised that for fascism to become acceptable to the middle classes and conservatives it must either abandon or play down any remaining ideas about radical economic and social reform. During 1921
and 1923 Mussolini skilfully took advantage of his opportunities to create such an impression.
Government instability
-Governments following the elections of May 1921 were unstable. Giolitti did manage to form a coalition without Mussolini but it collapsed within a month.
-To make matters worse, the Liberals were divided among themselves.
-Three Italian governments between May 1921 and October 1922.
-Fragile and unable to introduce the decisive measures needed to cope with the industrial disruption and the collapse of law and order.
The collapse of law and order
-The progressive collapse of law and order owed a great deal to Fascist actions.
-Squadrismo continued through 1921.
-Socialists were attacked, and not infrequently killed.
-Fascist violence even extended to parliament itself, most notoriously on the occasion when a Socialist deputy was beaten up on the floor of the chamber.
Mussolini increases his control over the Fascist movement
-Mussolini’s activities during the remainder of 1921 were directed towards making fascism a
cohesive political force that could command more widespread support within Italian society.
-His attempt to organise fascism more effectively results in the establishment of the National Fascist
Party in October 1921.
-Fascism was no longer just a movement, but a recognised political party.
-In the following month the party congress formally accepted Mussolini as the leader of the newly
formed party.
…pt2
-The Fascist Party was to be organised and run by men from Mussolini’s own Milan faction, who
were loyal to their leader.
-Mussolini had established more control over those Fascist squads that had so terrorised Socialists in
the agricultural areas of Emilia and the Romagna.
-However, the control over this provincial fascism was by no means total, and there would be
disagreements over the means to secure power. Yet he could now pose as the unchallenged head
of a real political party.
Reassuring the Catholic church and conservative liberals.
-In November 1921 Mussolini made a direct attempt to win over Catholics.
-Mussolini also increased his efforts to appeal to conservatives: people who feared socialism,
deplored the government’s conciliatory policy towards workers and questioned its ability to restore order.
-He dropped the more socialist sounding policies espoused by fascism in 1919. In fact, the leader of
fascism had begun to distance himself from such radical ideas during 1920, and it had not been
coincidental that the 35 Fascist deputies elected in May 1921 were on the right of the movement.
…pt2
-From 1921 Mussolini’s speeches concentrated on what fascism was against, namely socialism and
liberalism, but spelled out Fascist policies only in very broad terms, stressing its patriotism and
commitment to strong government.
-Such speeches were quite deliberate attempts to persuade the conservative classes that they had
nothing to fear and much gain from the victory of fascism. They also reflected fascism’s lack of
specific, detailed policies. Mussolini wanted a strong, expansionist Italy, hated socialism and
democracy, and despised parliament, but he was principally concerned with winning power for
himself and becoming dictator if Italy. Policy was completely subordinated to this end. In fact, it was
advantageous to have little clear policy – no groups would be offended.
Fascist violence
-On the one hand, he encouraged the squads to continue their campaign of violence and suggested that he agreed with their plans for a violent seizure of power. On the other hand, when talking to conservatives, he disassociated himself from the worst excesses of Fascist violence.
General strike
At the end of July the Socialist trade unions called a general strike in an attempt to force the government to act against the Fascists. Mussolini made brilliant use of this opportunity to demonstrate that the left was still a threat and that only fascism could deal with it. As soon as the general strike was announced, he publicly declared that if the government did not stop the industrial action his Fascists would step in and do it for
them. Almost as the strike began, Fascists took over the running of public transport and ensured that the postal system continued to function. If strikers protested they were beaten.
…pt2
The general strike was a fiasco for the left. It had been poorly organised, and only attracted partial support from the workers. Even in those cities where the strike call was obeyed, the Fascist action limited its effect. Within days the strike had collapsed, leaving the Socialists in disarray. Mussolini could present his Fascists as the sole defenders of law and order. This was a crucial development. The Fascists actions impressed the
conservative middle classes, helping to convince them that fascism could be trusted with a share in government. From this point on the question was not whether the Fascists would enter the government, but rather on what terms.
March on Rome (1922)
-Talked to Liberals as well as squads about the coup.
-Plans for seizure of northern and central towns and cities.
-27th October fascist squads began seizing town halls. 30,000 fascists involved.
-Victor Emmanuel II refused Facta’s demands for martial law. Reasons- pro-fascist, liked patriotism and natioanlism : feared civil war; VE lacked confidence in govt; overestimated number of fascists on march.
-Facta resigned; Salandra unable to form govt with Musso.
-29th October, Musso became PM.
How did Musso consolidate his power and become a dictator? (new topic)
As the new PM, Mussolini was in a relatively weak
position in October 1922. The PNF (National Fascist
Party) had only 35 deputies in the 535 member
Chamber and just four ministers in the 14-strong
Cabinet.
By 1926, however, Mussolini had succeeded in
creating his so-called ‘regime of champions’ – a
personal dictatorship based on one party rule
The fascist consolidation of power 1922-1926.
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Fascist grand council - december 1922
This was declared to be the supreme decision making body within the Fascist party. It could discuss proposals for government action, but Mussolini insisted on sole power over appointments to his council. In effect, he was attempting to establish total control over fascist policy-making.
Private army of 30,000 men.
Support from powerful groups.
-Decision not to attack widespread tax evasion
convinced industrialists.
-By early 1923 – support of Confindustria (powerful, conservative organisation).
-Gain support from the church (RE compulsory, ban
contraception). Pope withdraw support from PPI.
-Support from Liberals, conservatives, church and
business – believed Mussolini could be controlled
and stop the power of socialists.
