Disease, gas exchange, respiration, excretion, co-ordination Flashcards
Disease & immunity Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration Gas exchange in humans Excretion in humans nervous system
Types of pathogen [4]
1) Bacteria
2) Viruses
3) Fungi
4) Protozoa
Bacteria
Single-cell organisms without a nucleus Example: Strep throat, food poisoning, pneumona
Viruses
Non living particle
Define transmissable diseases
Is a disease in which the pathogen can be passed from one host to another
Diseases can be transmitted through.. [2]
1) Direct contact- blood or other body fluids
2) Indirect contact- contaminated surfaces or food, from animals, or from airborne pathogens
types of body defense systems [3]
1) Mechanical barrier- Skin and hairs in the nose
2) Chemical barriers- Mucus and stomach acid, antibacterial tears
3) Cellular barrier- Phagocyotsis and antibody production by lymphocytes, Can be enhanced by vaccination
Lymphocytes
Cells that tag foregin material (Antigen) with antibodies, targeting the material for destruction
Phagocytes
Eat/engulf foreign material through phagocytosis
Antibodies bind to antigens on pathogens
1) The shape of the antigen is complimentary to the binding groove on the protein antibody
2) Once the antibody-antigen complex is formed it marks the foreign material for destruction by phagocytes
3) Our body needs to create an antibody specific for every pathogen for an adpative immune response to occur
Define antigen [2]
1) Antigens are any structures that can be identified by an immune system
2) each organism has its own antigen
How to control the spread of diseases [3]
1) Clean water supplies
2) Hyigenic food preparation
3) Good personal hygiene
4) Waste disposal
5) Sewage treatment
6) Quarantine
Process of vaccination [4]
1) A weakened pathogen or specific antigen is put into the body
2) The antigen stimulates lymphocytes to produce antibodies
3) Complimentary antibody bind to the antigen, tagging it for destruction by phagocytes
4) Memory cells are produced that allow for the antibody to be produced rapidly in future, therefore giving you immunity
Why do we always feel more sick from first infections [2]
1) It takes our body mnay days to create antibodies that will fit an antigen if we have never been exposed to it
2) The second time our body is exposed it recognises the antigen much faster and can start producing antibodies within hours
Active immunity [3]
1) Defense against a pathogen by producing the antibody within the body
2) Is gained after an infection by a pathogen, or by vaccination
3) Memory cells are produced
Passive immunity [3]
1) Short term defence against a pathogen by antibodies acquired from another individual, e.g mother to infant from milk, mother to foetus through blood
2) Important for new-borns get all antibodies from the mother
3) Does not produce memory cells
Ventilation
Requires pressure so air can be forced in and out of the alveoli
function of diaphragm
Sheet of muslce that separates the thorax from the abdomen
WHere is intercostal mucles
Between the ribs
Process of inhalation [5]
1) Internal intercostal muscles relax and external intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs up and out
2) Diaphragm also contracts and flattens
3) Volume of thorax increases
4) Air pressure in thorax decreases, creating a negative pressure
5) Air enters the lungs to equilibriate pressures
What muslces are contracting/relaxing in inhalation
1) Internal intercostal muscles relax and external intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs up and out
2) Diaphragm also contracts and flattens
How inhalation affects thorax
Volume of thorax increases
How does inhalation affect the air pressure
Air pressure in thorax decreases creating a negative pressure
Air move in or out during inhalation
Air enters the lungs to equilibriate pressures
What muslces are contracting/relaxing in exhalation
1) Internal intercostal muscles contract and external intercostal muscles relax, pulling ribs down and in
2) Diaphragm also relaxes and moves up
How inhalation affects thorax
Volume of thorax decreases
How does exhalation affect the air pressure
Air pressure in thorax increases creating a positive pressure
Air move in or out during exhalation
Air exists the lungs to equilibriate pressures
Process of exhalation [5]
1) Internal intercostal muscles contract and external intercostal muscles relax, pulling ribs down and in
2) Diaphragm also relaxes and moves up
3) Volume of thorax decreases
4) Air pressure in thorax increases, creating a positive pressure
5) Air exists the lungs to equilibriate pressures
Cartilage in trachea
Made up of rings of cartilage
Helps keep trachea from collapsing
Route of oxygen
1) Down trachea
2) Through left and right bronchus
3) Through bronchioles within each lung
4) Alveoli is the site of gas exchange with bloodstream
Alveolus adaptations [4]
1) Covered in capillaries reducing diffusion distance
2) Alvoli only 1 cell thick reducing diffusion distance
3) Large surface area
4) Blood is flowing through capillaries, maintaning concentration gradient
How can you be infected with chlorea
Ingested via infected water or food, if it enters the small intestine it can cause illness
Explain how cholera causes diarrhoea [7]
1) Bacteria attach to the wall of the small intestine
2) They produce a toxin
3) The toxin stimulates the cells lining the intestine to release chloride ions from inside the cells into the lumen of the intestine
4) The chloride ions accumulate in the lumen of the small intestine and lower the water potential there
5) Once the water potential is lower than that of the cells lining the intestine, water starts to move out of the cells into the intestine (by osmosis)
6) Large quantities of water are lost from the body in watery faeces
7)The blood contains too little chloride ions and water
How can severe diarrhoea lead to death?
loss of significant amounts of water and ions from the body, causing the tissues and organs to stop working properly
How can cholera infection be treated?
oral rehydration therapy drink a small amount of salt and sugar dissolved in it
Define pathogen
Disease causing organism
Explain the role of vaccination in controlling the spread of diseases
Give protection against specific diseases and boost the body’s defence against infection without being exposed to dangerous diseases
Examples of active immunity [2]
1) The body has become infected with a pathogen and so the lymphocytes go through the process of making antibodies specific to that pathogen
2) Vaccination
Define antigen
All cells have molecules, such as proteins, projecting from their cell membranes
These are known as antigens
Example of passive immunity [2]
1) Through the placenta
2) Breast milk
Function of a larynx
Lid to stop food going down ur trachea when swallowing
Inspired air composition [3]
1) 21% oxygen
2) 0.04% carbon dioxide
3) 78% nitrogen
Expired air composition [3]
1) 16% oxygen
2) 4% carbon dioxide
3) 78% nitrogen
What is water vapor concentration like in exhaled air compared to inhaled air?
Water vapor concentration is higher in exhaled air
Respiration word equation
Oxygen + glucose -> Carbon dioxide + water + energy
Goblet cells functions and location
In the lung epithelium
Produce and secrete mucus
looks like cups
How does mucus help our body
Traps bacteria, viruses, and any other particles that enter our lungs
Cilia functions and location
Small hairs on the surface of epithelial cells, they push mucus and other small particles towards the nose and throat
Pulmonary is to do with..
lungs
ex: pulmonary cells
pulmonary veins
Explain what happens to heart and lung as we exercise [2]
1) Our rate of breathing increases and the tidal volume (Air in and out per breath) this is to maintain concentrations of oxygen and low concentrations of carbon dioxide in alveoli, therefore maintaining the steep concentration gradients between blood and alveoli
2) Our heart pumps faster. to transport oxygen and glucose to body cells faster and to transport carbon dioxide in to alveoli faster to maintain the high rates of respiration
Breathing during exercise [5]
1) Muscle cell respiration increases
2) The brain detects increasing pH in blood - a signal is sent to the lungs to increase breathing
3) Breathing rate and volume of air in each breath increase, more gaseous exchange
4) The brain tells the heart to beat faster
5) More oxygenated blood gets to muscle, CO2 is removed
The effect of the catalyst on rate of reaction
Reactants require less energy to successfully collide therefore the frequency of successful collisions increases
Ways energy is used in organisms [7]
1) Cell division
2) Actve transport
3) Movement
4) Temperature maintenance
5) Protein synthesis
6) Muscle contractions
7) Sending nerve signals
Define Aerobic respiration
The breakdown of glucose to release energy using oxygen
Aerobic respiration equation word and chemical
1) glucose + oxygen -> carbon dioxide + water
2) C6H12O6 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O
Pros and cons of aerobic respiration
1) Releases more energy per glucose molecule
2) Requires oxygen
Define anaerobic respiration
The breakdown of glucose to release energy without oxygen
Anaerobic respiration for yeast and muscle cells [3]
1) Yeast: Glucose -> alcohol + carbon dioxide
2) C6H1206 -> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
3) Muscle: Glucose -> Lactic acid
Pros and cons of anaerobic respiration [2]
1) Does not require oxygen
2) Produces much less energy per glucose (ATP per glucose) . Also produces latic acid creating an oxygen debt that must be paid back later
What happens when we cant get enough oxygen for aerobic respiration [3]
1) vigorous exercise cause our bodies to aerobically respire at a high rate. During this period oxygen is used faster in body cells than it can be replaced by gas exchange
2) Body cells run out of oxygen but they can still produce more energy using anerobic respiration however it creates lactic acid and it is inefficient
3) Anaerobic respiration creates an oxygen debt as oxygen is required to convert lactic acid back to pyruvate in the liver
How to recover from oxygen debt [3]
1) Continue fast heart rate to pump lactic acid to liver faster
2) Continue deep and fast breathing to supply oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid back into pyruvate
3) Aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver
Carbon dioxide test
Bubble gas though lime water turns cloudy positive turns clear negative
Define respiration
Chemical reactions that break down nutrients to release energy inside cells
define yeast
SIngle cell fungus
Define excretion
The removal of toxic materials, the waste products of metabolism, and substances in excess of requirements
Organs in excretion [4]
1) Skin
2) Lungs
3) Liver
4) Kidneys
Skin in excretion
Water and mineral ions
Lungs in excretion
Carbon dioxide and water
Liver in excretion
Produces urea from amino acids
Kidneys in excretion
Excrete water, mineral ions, and urea
Deamination definition and usage
De-aminonising so breaking down protein to make ureaU
Ureter functions
Transports urine from the kidneys to the bladder
Bladder functions
Collects urine prior to urination
Urethra functions
Faciliates the removal of urine from body
What is the role of kidneys [3]
1( Removal of urea from blood
2) Adjustment of ions in the blood
3) adjustment of water in the blood
Roles of the kidneys [3]
1) Maintaining water and ion balance in the body
2) Filter urea out of blood and exrete it
3) Waste products are transferred to the bladder
Removal of urea [3]
1) Proteins cannot be stored by the body so excess amino acids are broken down by the liver - this is called deamination
2) The waste product is urea and filtred out by the kidneys
3) Urea is toxic waste product so must be excreted before it reaches high concentrations
Adjustment of ion content [2]
1) Ions such as sodium are taken into the body in food
2) Excess ions are removed by the kidneys
Adjustment of water content (Too little water)
1) Hypothalamus detects & Pituitary releases AFH
2) More ADH enters kidney- more water is reabsorbed
3) Less urine which is more concentrated is produced
Adjustment of water content ) Too much water in blood)
1) Hypothalamus detects & Pituitary releases less adh
2) Less water is reabosrbed so more urine and less concentrated
Kidney structure [4]
1) Renal vein
2) Renal artery
3) Cortex
4) Medulla
`Renal vein
Transports filtered blood back to the heart
Renal artery
Transports in unfiltered blood from the aortta into the kidney
Cortex
Blood is filtered here by nephrons
medulla
Reabsorption of water to maintain water balance occurs here
Ultrafiltration [2]
1) The glomerulus is a knot of blood vessels surrounded by the renal capsule
2) High blood pressure in the glomerulus forces water, ions, urea and glucose out of the blood
3) Smaller molecules are forced out of the capillaries of the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule
Selective reabsorption [2]
1) Renal Reflection can be shown by the waves hitting a plane (straight) surface, such as a wall or mirror: All glucose is reabsorbed
Sufficient ions/salt is reabsorbed
SufSuffcient water is also reabsorbed
2) rest is passed on to the bladder as urine
why is the urea produced?
The liver cant store protein so it breaks it down into aminoacids which contains nitrogen, so it becomes a toxic material,
Factors the affect volume and concentration of urine [3]
1) Water (intake)
2) Exercise / sweat produce
3) The temperature (of the body or environment)
Explain the importance of excreting carbon dioxide [3]
1) It dissolves easily in water which can dissolve in our body (70% water)
2) Lowers the pH of our blood
3) Denatures our enzyme
Why antibiotics aren’t successful in treating influenza? [2]
1) Influenza is a virus
2) Antibiotics don’t destroy viruses
Explain why a viral infection is not treatable with antibiotics [3]
1) Antibiotics are not effective against viruses
2) Antibiotics inhibit bacterial processes
3) Viruses replicate inside host cells which antibiotics cannot reach
The measles vaccine will not give a child immunity against the influenza virus explain why [2]
1) Each pathogen has its own antigen
2) Antibodies for 1 type of pathogen won’t work for another type of pathogen
spaniards visitied a tribe, the tribe died out due to influenza, but the spaniards were fine. Explain why [3]
1) The spaniards were carriers of the influenza
2) The tribe did not have immunity against pathogen whereas the spaniards did
3) This is due to the tribe’s lack of exposure to this type of pathogen.
How does The body prevents particles in inspired air from reaching the gas exchange surfaces [4]
1) Hairs inside the nose trap particles
2) Particles become trapped in mucus
3) Cilia move the mucus by wafting/beating motion
4) Mucus moves away from the gas exchange surfaces towards the throat
What causes the ribs to move during inspiration
intercoastal muscles
factors that influence gas exhcange surfaces [4]
1) Good Ventilation
2) Good Blood supply
3) Large Surface area
4) THin walls
Which type of tissue is effected by tracheal collapse? [2]
1) Cartilage
2) Trachea is made of rings of cartilage, if they are weak then the rings will collpase under negative pressure
Why is good blood supply needed in the lungs [3]
1) Constant movement of blood in and out of the capillaries
2) Maintains high concentration gradient
3) So blood can be oxygenated fully
Why did the temperature inside a small jar with crickets increase? Its the same temperature outside [3]
1) Crickets release energy and carbon dioxide
2) Carbon dioxide in a small confined space leads to greenhouse effect as it traps heat
3) Heat is also released from the kinetic energy of crickets
Excess amino acids are broken down by [2]
1) Deamination to form urea
2) Part of amino acids is turned into ammonia which is turned into urea
The name of the process that assembles amino acids to form proteins
Protein synthesis
How lactic acid is processed? [3]
1) The processing of lactic acid requires oxygen
2) It is used during respiration to produce carbon dioxide and water
3) Enzymes catalyse the reaction
Define nerve
A bundle of neurons
What are electrical impulses? [2]
1) They are sent through nerves to quickly send signals around our body
2) Used for rapidly coordinating or regulating the bodies functions such as pupils dilating, stomach digests, and heart rate increase
Immediate short term changes our body uses..
Nerves
Delayed long term changes our body uses..
Hormones
Central nervous system consists of…
Brain and Spinal cord
Peripheral nervous system consists of…
All other nerves in the body
Dendrites functions [2]
1) Receive signals from surrounding neurons
2) Branched to allow connections with many neuronsA
Axon functions [2]
1) Long structure off the cell body that electrical signals can be rapidly sent through
2) Its long length allows for signals to be sent rapidly
Axon termial function
Signal is passed to the next neuron over the synapse (Transmitts signal)
Nerve signals are sent in one way or both way
One way
How are nerve signals sent- reflex responses [5]
1) A stimulus is received by a receptor
2) Sensory neurons pass these signals back into a relay neuron in the CNS (Central nervous system)
3) The relay neuron sends this signal on to the motor neuron
4) The motor neuron sends the signal to an effector organ (Usually a muscle or gland) Which is then stimulated to respond
5) Reflexes allow us to respond to stimuli extremely fast without conscious thought and minimise damage
What happens if you dipped ur hand in a hot pot? [5]
1) Pain receptors in ur skin were activated due to stimulus of hot pot
2) Sensory neurons passes signal from receptors back to the relay neuron in the CNS
3) Relay neuron passes signal to motor neuron
4) Motor neuron sends electrical signals on to an effector organ, the tricep and bicep
5) Effector organ responds to stimulus, moving ur hand away from the hot pot
Dendron
singular of dendrite
Define hormones
A chemical substance produced by a gland and carried by the blood
Define involuntary action [2]
1) Automatic
2) Stimulus always leads to the same response
Types of neurones [3]
1) Sensory neurone
2) Relay neurone
3) Motor neurone
Define voluntary response [2]
1) Conscious decision to carry out an action
2) Takes longer than voluntary response since you are consciously thinking about it
Fovea function [2]
1) Highest concentration of come cells with no rods
2) A tiny pit located in the retina provides the clearest vision of all
Optic nerve function
Sends nerve signals from the rod and cones cells in the retina to the brain
iris function
Is the coloured part of the eye which affects the size of the pupils
Lens function
Is able to change shape to focus light onto the retina
Pupil function
Is the opening in the eye which allows light to enter
Cornea function
Is curved part of the eye which refracts light as it enters
Suspensory ligaments function
Attach the lens to cillary muscles
Ciliary muscles function
They contract or relax to make the suspensory ligaments go slack or tight respectively therefore changing the shape of the lens
What happens when our eyes are in low light condiitions [2]
1) Radial muscles contract in low light so pupil will dilate
2) To absorb more light
What happens when our eyes are in high light coniditions [2]
1) Circular muscles contract in bright light, so the pupil will appear smaller
Iris reflex
controlling light
Rod cells function [3]
1) Detect differences in light intensity
2) Do not detect clour
3) Used in dim light extensively
Cone cells functions [3]
1) Detect differences in colour
2) Different cones detect red/blue/green
3) Cone = Colour
Occipital lobe functions
Information is carried by sensory neurones to the occipital lobe where it is processed
Fovea function
In the eye, a tiny pit located in the retina that provides the clearest vision of all
Retina function
Contains light receptors
What is the skin sensitive to? and what does it sense
pressure heat cold and pain
sense touch and temperature
What is the tongue sensitive to? and what does it sense
Sensitive to chemicals in food and drink
senses taste
What is the nose sensitive to? and what does it sense
Sensitive to chemicals in air
senses smell
What is the ear sensitive to? and what does it sense
Sensitive to sound and movement
senses Hearing and balance
What is the eye sensitive to? and what does it sense
sensitive to light
senses sight
Explain how light is processed by the brain [3]
1) The retina contaisn rods and cones cells that are receptors for light coming in the eye
2) The retina will process the light into signals/impulses so it can be passed on by the sensory neurone to the brian
3) Optic nerves is a bundle of sensory neurone to send information collected by the rods and cones cells to the brain
Reflex arc [7]
1) Stimulus
2) Receptors
3) Sensory neurone
4) Relay neurone
5) Motor neurone
6) Effector
7) Response
How does a synapse work? [4]
1) Vesicles containing neuro transmitters are stored in the pre-synaptic membrane
2) These are released into the synaptic cleft
3) These neurotransmitters diffuses into the synapse
Which binds to the neurotransmitter receptor molecules on the surface of post-ynaptic membrane
4) this riggers an impulse in the second neurone
Describe the process of accommodation in the eye
1) When we view objects far away, the lens needs to be thin so light refracts properly
2) Our ciliary muscle will relax while our suspensory ligaments will tighten so the lens is thin and pulled
3) When we view objects close, the lens needs to be thick
4) Ciliary muscle will contract while suspensory ligaments relax so the lens is squashed and thickens
What is the distribution of rod and cone cells in nocturnal mammals
1) More rods than cone
2) More rods at the fovea
yeast anaerobic respiration chemical equation
C6H1206 -> 2C2H5OH + 2CO2
