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Disease And The Immune System Flashcards

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1
Q

Name three communicable diseases caused by virus

A
  • HIV/AIDS (human)
  • Influenza (animals)
  • Tobacco mosaic viruses (plants)
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2
Q

Name three comunicable diseases caused by bacteria

A
  • Ring rot (potatoes and tomatoes)
  • Tuberculosis (animals)
  • Bacterial meningitis (human)
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3
Q

Name three communicable diseases caused by fungi

A
  • Ring worm (cattle)
  • Athletes foot (human)
  • Black Sigatoka (banana)
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4
Q

Name two communicable diseases caused by protoctists

A
  • Malaria

- Potato and tomato blight

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5
Q

Different types of Direct transmission in animals

A
  • Direct contact: skin to skin contact or contact with bodily fluids
  • Inoculation: through a break in the skin
  • Ingestion: taking in contaminated food or drink, or transferring pathogens mouth to hand
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6
Q

Different types of Indirect transmission in animals

A
  • Fomites: inanimate objects such as bedding, socks or cosmetics can transfer pathogens
  • Droplet infection: minute droplets of saliva and mucus are expelled form you mouth as you talk, cough or sneeze. These droplets can contain pathogens
  • Vectors: a vector transmits communicable pathogens from one host to another
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7
Q

Factors that affect the transmission communicable disease in animals

A
  • Overcrowded living and work conditions
  • Poor nutrition
  • A compromised immune system
  • Poor disposal of waste, creates a breeding site for pathogens
  • Climate change, introduces new vectors and diseases
  • Culture and infrastructure, traditional medical practices increase transmission
  • socioeconomic factors, a lack of trained health of public warning that there is an outbreak
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8
Q

How are pathogens Directly transmitted in plants

A

-Involves direct contact of a healthy plant with any part of s diseased plant

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9
Q

Types of indirect transmission in plants

A
  • Vectors: humans, water, animals and humans
  • Infected plants leave pathogens or reproductive spores from protoctists or fungi in the soil. These can infect the next crop.
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10
Q

Factores effecting the transmission of communicable disease in plants

A
  • Planting varieties, planting crops that are susceptible to disease
  • Overcrowding increases likelihood of contact
  • Poor mineral nutrition reduces resistance of plants
  • Damp warm conditions increases the survival and spread of pathogens and spores
  • climate change, increase rainfall and wind promote spread of disease
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11
Q

What are the plants physical active defence of disease

A

-Callose is synthesised and deposited between the cell walls and cell membrane in cells next to the infected cell. They act as barriers that prevent the pathogen from entering.

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12
Q

What are some passive physical defence of the plant

A
  • They have a waxy cuticle which provides a physical barrier against pathogen entry. Also stops water accumulating on the leaf.
  • Plants have cell wall which act as a barrier if they make it past the waxy cuticle.
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13
Q

What are chemical defences in plants

A
  • Insect repellant
  • Insecticides
  • Antibacterial compounds
  • Anti fungal compounds
  • Anti oomycetes
  • General toxins
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14
Q

How do plants recognised they are being attacked

A

Receptors in the cell respond to molecules from the pathogen or from chemicals produced when the cell wall is attacked. This triggers cell signalling that switch on genes. This in turn triggers a cellular response.

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15
Q

What is the innate non-specific primary defence

A

Keeping pathogens out of the body

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16
Q

What is the innate non-specific secondary defence

A

Is getting rid of pathogens in the body

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17
Q

What is the adaptive specific immune response

A

Is specifically targeting pathogens; this is immunity

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18
Q

Examples of innate non specific primary defence

A
  • Mucous membranes: they secrete mucus which traps microorganisms, the mucus has lysozyme which destroys the bacteria cell walls. This protects body openings such as nostrils.
  • Skin a physical barrier
  • Blood coagulation, when blood clots to plug wounds and prevent pathogens entering
  • Inflammatory response
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19
Q

What is the inflammatory response

A
  • Mast cells release histamine sand cytokines
  • Histamines cause vasodilation which causes localised heat which prevents pathogens reproducing
  • Histamines increase capillary wall permeability so plasma is forced out
  • cytokines attract phagocytes to that location.
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20
Q

Stages of phagocytosis

A
  • Pathogens produce chemicals that attract pathogens
  • Phagocytes recognise foreign antigens on the pathogen.
  • The phagocytes engulf the pathogen and encloses it in a vacuole called a phagosome
  • The phagosome combines with a lysosomes to form a phagolysome
  • Enzymes from the lysosomes digest and destroy the pathogen
  • The phagocyte if a macrophage then presents the antigen becoming an antigen presenting cell
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21
Q

What do cytokines do

A

They act as cell signalling molecules attracting phagocytes.

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22
Q

What do opsonins do

A

They are chemicals that bind to pathogens and tag them so they can be more easily recognised by phagocytes. Phagocytes have receptors that bind to common opsonins, so it can engulf it.

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23
Q

What is the immune response

A

The action of lymphocytes in response to a non self antigen entering the body

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24
Q

What are the 2 types of lymphocytes

A

B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes

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25
Q

What are the different types of T lymphocytes and where do they mature

A

T lymphocytes nature in the thymus and produce T killers, T helpers, T memory and T regulators

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26
Q

Where is B lymphocytes produced, stored and what are the different types

A

B lymphocytes are stored in lymph nodes and are made in bone marrow.
There are B plasma cells and B memory cells

27
Q

What do t helper cells do

A

They produce interleukins when they bind to an APC. Interleukins stimulate activity of B cells and cause it to divide

28
Q

What do t killer cells do

A

They kill infected cells

29
Q

What do t regulatory cells do

A

They suppress your immune system so that white blood cells don’t attack the hosts body cells

30
Q

What do t memory cells do

A

They divide rapidly to form large amounts of T cells if they encounter the antigen for a second time

31
Q

What do B plasma cells do

A

They produce antibodies for a specific antigen and release them into circulation

32
Q

What do B memory cells do

A

They divide rapidly in plasma cells to produce antibodies if they encounter the same antigen for a second time.

33
Q

What is clonal expansion

A

Is when the T or B lymphocytes divides to produce clones of itself by mitosis

34
Q

What is clonal selection

A

When a B or T lymphocyte receptor binds to a specific antigen

35
Q

What is cell mediated immunity

A
  • When macrophages engulf pathogens they display its antigens, becoming an APC.
  • T helper cells then bind to the APC however they have to be complementary. This is clonal selection.
  • T helper cells then become activated and produce interleukins which stimulates more T helper cells to divide rapidly by mitosis. This is clonal expansion.
  • T helper cells produce interleukins which stimulate activity of B cells and stimulate of production of other T cells.
  • T cells then differentiate
36
Q

What is humoral immunity

A
  • B lymphocytes have antibodies on their cell surface membrane and when they bind to a complementary antigen, it engulfs and processes the antigens to become an APC.
  • Activated T helper cells then bind to the B lymphocytes ( clonal selection) and produces interleukins which activates the B cell.
  • The activated B cells divide by mitosis. This is clonal expansion.
  • The cloned B cells then differentiate into B plasma cells and B memory cells.
37
Q

What are neutrophils

A

They are a type of phagocyte and are the first white blood cell to respond to a pathogen inside the body.

38
Q

What is the purpose of the hinge in antibodies

A

Allows the molecule to bind to two separate antigens one at each binding site by providing flexibility

39
Q

What is the variable region on antibodies

A

It is the antigen binding site, this area is specific for a specific antigen so it can vary shape. Antibodies bind to antigens by the lock and key mechanism forming an antigen-antibody complex.

40
Q

What bonds join the heavy peptide chain to the light peptide chain

A

Disulphide bonds/bridges

41
Q

How do antibodies defend the body

A
  • The antibody of the antigen-antibody complex acts as an opsonins so the complex is easily engulfed and digested by phagocytes
  • Most pathogens can no longer effectively invade the host cell once they are apart of the antigen-antibody complex.
  • Antibodies acts as agglutinins causing pathogen carrying antigen-antibody complexes to clump together so they can be engulfed in one go.
  • Antibodies act as antitoxins, binding to the toxins produced by pathogens making them harmless
42
Q

What is an Autoimmune disease

A

It is when the immune system stops recognising self antigens and starts to attack the hosts healthy body tissue. This is a genetic tendency where T regulators don’t work effectively.

43
Q

Examples of autoimmune diseases

A
  • lupus
  • arthritis
  • type 1 diabetes
44
Q

What is the primary immune response

A

When a pathogens enters the body for the first time it’s responde is slower because there aren’t many B lymphocytes. After being exposed to the antigen T and B lymphocytes produce memory cells.

45
Q

What is the second immune response

A

If the same pathogen enters the body again, the immune response will produce a quicker stronger immune response, due to the memory cells.

46
Q

What is artificial immunity

A

It is when the body is given immunity temporarily or permanently

47
Q

What is natural immunity

A

It is when you gain temporary or permanent immunity naturally without any artificial influences

48
Q

What is passive immunity

A

When antibodies are given to you. This can be by an injection form from your mother when you are a baby via the placenta.

49
Q

What is active immunity

A

It is when your body makes its own antibodies this can be a result of a vaccination or an infection

50
Q

What types of forms are antigenic material present in

A
  • Killed or inactive bacteria or virus
  • Attenuated (weakened) strains of live bacteria or viruses
  • Toxin molecules that have been altered and detoxified
  • Isolated antigens extracted from pathogens
  • Genetically engineered antigens
51
Q

What is an epidemic

A

When a communicable disease spreads rapidly to a lot of people on a local or national level

52
Q

What is a pandemic

A

It is when a communicable disease spreads rapidly across a number of countries and continentes

53
Q

How does herd immunisation control an epidemic

A

-At the beginning of an epidemic mass vaccinations can prevent the spread of pathogens. When a significant number of the population have been vaccinated this gives protection to those who do not have immunity. This is known as herd immunity as there is minimal opportunity for an outbreak to occur.

54
Q

Define the term parasite

A

On organisms that benefits off another by living on the hist and gaining nutrients, while the host suffers

55
Q

What is the function of the constant region in antibodies

A

It allows the phagocyte to bind to the pathogen

56
Q

Outline the process of neutralisation

A

Antibodies produce antitoxins that bind to toxins and prevent the toxins affecting the host cell

57
Q

Outline the process of agglutination

A

Group of pathogens clump together so they can be engulfed by phagocytes in one go

58
Q

Why do we need to develop new drugs

A
  • New disease are emerging and others changing
  • Some diseases have no effective treatment
  • Antibiotic treatments are losing their effectiveness
59
Q

Where have our current medicines come from

A 
Accidental discovery 
Tradition remedies 
Observation of wildlife 
Pharmacogenetics 
Synthetic biology
60
Q

What is pharmacogenetics

A
  • Studying the make up of an individual genetically in relation to drug interactions
  • Analysing the genome of both patient and pathogen to determine treatment
61
Q

What is synthetic biology

A
  • developing new molecules that mimics biological systems
  • culturing bacteria to act as biological factories that produce more expensive drugs
  • delivery of therapeutic molecules using nano particles
62
Q

Why do viruses do not use erythrocytes as host cells

A

Because they have no nucleus, no DNA and ribosomes which they need for proteins synthesis

63
Q

Why does plasmodium spends part of its life cycles in erythrocytes

A

They use the host cell to hides its self from the immune system.

Biology (19 decks)

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