Digestive System Flashcards
Barbara Herlihy. (2020). The Human Body in Health and Illness (7th Edition) [Texidium version]. Retrieved from http://texidium.com
Which system breaks down food into particles that are small and simple enough to be absorbed; and eliminates end products?
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Digestive
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What refers to the study of the digestive tract?
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Gastroenterology
(gastr/o, stomach; enter/o, intestines)
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The digestive ___ and the accessory organs of digestion make up the digestive system.
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tract
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What is also called the alimentary canal or the gastrointestinal (GI) tract?
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Digestive Tract
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What is the hollow tube extending from the mouth to the anus?
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Digestive Tract
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What includes the mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, and anus?
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Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
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___ ___ of digestion include the salivary glands, teeth, liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
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Accessory organs
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___ glands empty secretions into the mouth; the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas empty secretions into the ___ ___.
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Salivary
small intestine
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Which process includes food being broken down into smaller particles suitable for absorption?
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Digestion
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Digestion takes place within the ___ ___.
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digestive tract
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Which process includes the end products of digestion moving across the walls of the digestive tract into blood and lymph for distribution throughout the body?
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Absorption
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What are the two forms of digestion?
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Mechanical
Chemical
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Which digestion is the breakdown of large food particles into smaller pieces by physical means?
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Mechanical
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Which digestion is usually achieved by chewing and the mashing actions of the muscles in the digestive tract?
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Mechanical
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Which digestion is the chemical alteration of food?
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Chemical
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Which digestion includes protein becoming amino acid?
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Chemical
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Which digestion includes digestive enzymes, stomach acid, and bile?
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Chemical
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___ ___ of digestion are absorbed as they move across the lining of the digestive tract into blood and lymph and eventually reach every cell in the body.
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End products
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Food that cannot be digested and absorbed is eliminated from the body as ___.
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feces
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___ of waste products is the last stage of the digestive process.
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Elimination
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Digestive System
A) Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract
B) Anatomical Arrangement Digestive System Organs
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Although modified for specific functions in different organs, the ___ of the digestive tract has a similar structure throughout its length.
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wall
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What are the four layers of walls in the digestive tract?
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Mucosa
Submucosa
Muscle Layer
Serosa
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What is the innermost layer of the digestive tract?
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Mucosa
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Which layer consists of mucous membrane; and a small amount of connective tissue and smooth muscle?
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Mucosa
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In parts of the digestive tract, especially the ___ ___, the mucosa is folded to increase the surface area for absorption.
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small intestine
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What refers to the structures that secrete mucus, digestive enzymes, and hormones?
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Glands
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Which layer is concerned with digestion and absorption?
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Mucosa
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What is the thick layer of loose connective tissue that lies beneath the mucosa?
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Submucosa
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Which layer contains blood vessels, nerves, glands, and lymphatic vessels?
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Submucosa
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What is the third layer of the digestive tract?
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Muscle Layer
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Two layers of smooth muscles are an ___ ___ layer and an ___ ___ layer.
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inner circular
outer longitudinal
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Which layer is responsible for several types of movements in the digestive tract?
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Muscle Layer
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Alternate contraction and relaxation of the stomach muscles digest food mechanically and mixes its particles with digestive juices.
This type of muscle activity is called ___.
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segmentation
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What refers to the rhythmic alternating contraction and relaxation of the muscles that pushes food in a forward direction through the digestive tract?
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Peristalsis
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What moves food in the same way that toothpaste squirts from a tube?
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Peristalsis
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Toothpaste squirts in a forward direction because the bottom of the tube is squeezed.
___ waves squeeze the food from behind and push it forward.
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Peristaltic
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Peristaltic waves are stimulated by the presence of ___.
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food
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What is the outermost lining of the digestive tract?
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Serosa
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What extends as peritoneal membranes (mesentery, mesocolon, and omentum)?
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Serosa
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___ membranes form large, flat, folded structures that help anchor the digestive organs in place; carry blood vessels, lymph vessels, and nerves to the abdominal organs; and help restrict the spread of infection in the abdominal cavity.
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Peritoneal
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The peritoneal membranes, located behind the digestive organs, are called the ___ and ___.
When they are located in front of the organs, they are called the greater and lesser ___.
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mesentery, mesocolon
omentum
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What is a double layer of peritoneum that contains a considerable amount of fat and resembles an apron draped over the abdominal organs?
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Greater Omentum
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The digestive tract has a unique nervous network called the ___ ___ ___ (___).
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enteric nervous system (ENS)
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What regulates gut [gastrointestinal (GI)] motility and secretion; its activity is modulated by autonomic nerves, especially the parasympathetic (vagal) fibers?
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Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
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Some refer to the ___ as a second brain because many of the neurotransmitters that affect the brain also affect the ___.
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gut x 2
Ever have a “gut” feeling that something is wrong or right?
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Layers of the Digestive Tract
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What begins with the mouth, also known as the oral cavity?
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Digestive Tract
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Food is ingested into the mouth, where ___ begins immediately.
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digestion
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What is lined with a mucous membrane and contains structures that assist in the digestive process?
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Mouth
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What includes the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, and several other structures?
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Mouth
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The ___ cavity, as part of the oral cavity, refers to the area between the gums and the cheek or lips.
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buccal
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What chews food and begins mechanical digestion?
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Teeth
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During the process of chewing, or ___, the teeth break down large pieces of food into smaller pieces.
Once moistened by the secretions in the mouth, the small pieces of food are easily swallowed.
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mastication
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During a lifetime, a person will have two sets of teeth: ___ and ___.
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deciduous
permanent
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Which teeth are also called baby teeth or milk teeth?
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Deciduous
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There are ___ deciduous teeth.
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20
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Deciduous teeth begin to appear at the age of 6 months and are generally in place by the age of 2½ years.
Between the ages of ___ and ___ years, these teeth are pushed out and replaced by the permanent teeth.
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6
12
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There are ___ permanent teeth.
Note the positions and names of the teeth: the ___, ___ (___), ___ (___), and molars, including the ___ teeth.
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32
incisors, cuspids (canines), bicuspids (premolars), wisdom
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The shape and location of each tooth determines its function.
For example, the sharp, chisel-shaped ___ and cone-shaped ___ are front teeth used to tear or grasp food.
The larger, flatter ___, the back teeth, are more suited for grinding food.
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incisors, cuspids
molars
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What are the three parts of the tooth?
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Crown
Neck
Root
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The ___ of the tooth is above the level of the gum, or gingiva, and is covered with hard, brittle enamel.
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crown
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What connects the crown with the root of the tooth?
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Neck
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Which part of the tooth is embedded in the jawbone?
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Root
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The outer surface of the root is anchored to the periodontal membrane by ___.
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cementum
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The bulk of a tooth consists of a bonelike material called ___.
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dentin
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Nerves, blood vessels, and connective tissue, called pulp, penetrate the ___ through the pulp cavity and supply the tooth with sensation and nutrients.
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dentin
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As the pulp cavity extends into the root, it is called the ___ ___.
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root canal
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___ is the name given to the tissues that surround the teeth; it includes the gums, soft tissue, and bone.
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Periodontium
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___ and ___ are mouth conditions that are often drug induced.
Both cause considerable discomfort and interfere with nutrition.
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Gingivitis, stomatitis
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What is inflammation of the gums?
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Gingivitis
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What is an inflammation or ulcers of the oral mucosa in the mouth area?
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Stomatitis
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What is the muscular organ that occupies the floor of the mouth where it serves two major roles in the digestive process?
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Tongue
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First, the tongue facilitates chewing and swallowing by continuously repositioning the food in the mouth.
As swallowing begins, the tongue pushes the food, which it has molded into a ball-like mass called a ___, toward the pharynx.
Second, the tongue contains ___ ___ that allows taste.
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bolus
taste buds
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What is the small piece of mucous membrane that anchors the tongue to the floor of the mouth?
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Frenulum
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The tongue has an extensive capillary network that provides the ___ (under the tongue) area with a rich supply of blood.
Because the blood supply is so good, medications that are administered ___ are absorbed rapidly.
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sublingual
sublingually
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What are the three pairs of salivary glands that secrete contents into the mouth?
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Parotid
Submandibular
Sublingual
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Which glands are the largest of the three and lie below and anterior to the ears?
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Parotid
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Which glands may be infected by the mumps virus, resulting in a chipmunk-like appearance?
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Parotid
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Which glands are located on the floor of the mouth?
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Submandibular
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Which glands are located under the tongue and are the smallest of the salivary glands?
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Sublingual
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The salivary glands are exocrine glands that secrete saliva (from a Greek word meaning “spittle”), a watery fluid that contains mucus and a digestive enzyme called salivary ___, or ___.
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amylase
ptyalin
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Approximately ___ L of saliva is secreted each day.
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1
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What reaches the mouth by way of tiny ducts?
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Saliva
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What softens and moistens food and thereby facilitates swallowing?
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Saliva
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The hard and soft palates form the ___ of the mouth.
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roof
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The anterior ___ ___ separates the oral cavity from the nasal passages, and the posterior ___ ___ separates the oral cavity from the nasopharynx.
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hard palate
soft palate
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Which palate extends toward the back of the oral cavity as the uvula, the V-shaped piece of soft tissue that hangs down from the upper back region of the mouth?
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Soft
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What prevents food and water from entering the nasal passages during the act of swallowing?
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Uvula
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What are the masses of lymphatic tissue located along the sides of the posterior oral cavity?
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Palatine Tonsils
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Oral Cavity
A) Structures in the Mouth.
B) Longitudinal View of a Tooth
C) Location of the Salivary Glands
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(Herlihy, 2020, p. 433)
What pushes food from the mouth into the pharynx (throat)?
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Tongue
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The pharynx is involved in swallowing (___).
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deglutition
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What are the three parts of the pharynx?
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Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
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Only the ___ and ___ of the pharynx are part of the digestive tract.
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oropharynx
laryngopharynx
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The act of swallowing normally directs food from the pharynx (throat) into the ___, a long tube that empties into the stomach.
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esophagus
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Food does not normally enter the nasal or respiratory passages because swallowing temporarily closes off the openings to both.
For example, during swallowing, the ___ ___ moves toward the opening to the nasopharynx.
Similarly, the laryngeal opening is closed when the ___ moves upward and allows the epiglottis to cover the entrance to the respiratory passages.
This process is seen as the up-and-down movement of the Adam’s apple, part of the larynx or voicebox.
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soft palate
trachea
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What is the food tube that carries food from the pharynx to the stomach?
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Esophagus
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What is approximately 10 inches (25 cm) long and descends through the chest cavity, penetratrating the diaphragm?
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Esophagus
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The act of swallowing pushes the ___ of food into the esophagus.
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bolus
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The presence of food in the esophagus stimulates ___ activity and causes the food to move through the esophagus into the stomach.
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peristaltic
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Glands within the ___ of the esophagus secrete mucus, which lubricates the bolus and facilitates its passage along the esophagus.
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mucosa
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The two esophageal sphincters are the ___ sphincter, located at the top of the esophagus, and the ___, or ___ ___ ___ (___), located at the base of the esophagus.
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pharyngoesophageal
gastroesophageal, lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
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Swallowing pushes food past the ___ sphincter into the esophagus.
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pharyngoesophageal
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Relaxation of the ___ ___ ___ (___) keeps the base of the esophagus open, thereby allowing the passage of food into the stomach.
When it is contracted, however, the ___ ___ ___ (___) closes the base of the esophagus, thereby preventing reflux, or regurgitation, of acidic stomach contents back into the esophagus.
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lower esophageal sphincter (LES) x 2
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In some persons, a poorly functioning ___ ___ ___ (___) allows for the reflux of stomach contents into the esophagus.
This condition is called ___ ___ ___ (___), characterized by a burning sensation called heartburn or pyrosis.
Persistent acid reflux can cause permanent structural damage to the lower esophagus.
The burning sensation is a result of the high acidity of the stomach contents.
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lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD)
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Eating and Swallowing Structures
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What is a pouchlike organ that lies in the upper left part of the abdominal cavity under the diaphragm and receives food from the esophagus?
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Stomach
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The stomach performs five important digestive functions:
1) Regulates the rate at which partially digested food is delivered to the ___ ___.
2) Secretes ___ ___, which includes digestive enzymes, hydrochloric acid (HCl), and intrinsic factor.
3) ___ food.
4) ___ small quantities of water and dissolved substances.
5) Secretes ___ ___.
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small intestine
gastric juice
Digests
Absorbs
gastric hormones
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What plays an important role in the mechanical digestion (mixing and mashing) of food?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 435)
Stomach
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Which digestion is limited in the stomach?
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Chemical
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The stomach is not well suited for an absorptive role, so absorption is limited.
It can, however, absorb ___ efficiently.
Therefore, the consumption of ___ beverages on an empty stomach can quickly increase blood levels of ___.
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alcohol
alcoholic
alcohol
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What are the three major regions of the stomach?
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Fundus
Body
Pylorus
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The pylorus, which literally means “gatekeeper,” continues as the ___ ___.
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pyloric canal
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The ___ ___ is located at the end of the pyloric canal and performs two functions.
First, it remains closed most of the time and therefore holds the food in the stomach long enough to allow the stomach to mix and mash its contents into a paste.
Second, it helps regulate the rate at which the gastric contents are delivered to the ___ ___.
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pyloric sphincter
small intestine
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Other landmarks of the ___ include the greater and lesser curvatures.
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stomach
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The empty stomach lies in thick accordion-like folds called ___.
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rugae
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What allows the stomach to expand?
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Rugae
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When the stomach is empty, it is the size and shape of a sausage.
Following a large meal, however, the stomach may expand to approximately ___ L.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 437)
1
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 437)
The stomach has three layers of muscles that lie in three directions: ___, ___, and ___.
This arrangement allows the stomach to churn and mix the food with gastric juice to create a thick, pastelike mixture called ___.
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longitudinal, oblique, circular
chyme
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Muscles of the stomach also generate peristaltic waves that squeeze the food toward the ___.
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pylorus
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Mucous membranes of the stomach contain two types of glands: ___ and ___.
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exocrine
neuroendocrine
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The exocrine glands contain three types of secretory cells: (1) the ___ cells, which secrete mucus; (2) the ___ cells, which secrete digestive enzymes; and (3) the ___ cells, which secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor.
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mucous
chief
parietal
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What refers to the secretions of gastric glands?
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Gastric Juice
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Hydrochloric acid (HCl) in gastric juice is strong enough to eat the varnish off furniture.
In addition to the gastric juice, other cells secrete thicker ___ and ___ that adheres closely to the stomach lining.
This secretion forms a protective coating for the stomach lining and prevents the acidic gastric juices from digesting the stomach itself.
This also explains the burning sensation caused by the reflux of acidic chyme into the base of the esophagus.
Unlike the stomach, the esophagus does not have this protective coating.
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mucus, bicarbonate
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One of the neuroendocrine glands, comprising the ___ cells, secretes ___, which is released in response to stimulation from the vagus nerve and the presence of amino acids and small peptides in the stomach.
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G, gastrin
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What stimulates the secretion of gastric juice by the gastric glands?
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Gastrin
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___, or ___, is and is not a stomach event.
It is a stomach event in that the stomach is emptied on ___.
However, ___ is not a stomach event in terms of mechanism.
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Vomiting, emesis
vomiting x 2
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What is part of the emetic reflex controlled by the medulla oblongata?
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Vomiting
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In response to stimuli sent to the medullary vomiting center, the ___ ___ ___ (___) relaxes and the diaphragm and abdominal muscles contract, thereby compressing the stomach and ejecting its contents.
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lower esophageal sphincter (LES)
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Stomach
A) Regions of the Stomach with Landmarks
B) Three Muscle layers of the Stomach
C) Mucosa of the Stomach
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(Herlihy, 2020, p. 437)
An acidic ___ is ejected by the stomach into the small intestine.
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chyme
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The small intestine is called “small” because its ___ is smaller than that of the large intestine.
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diameter
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The word small does not refer to the length of the small intestine; it is considerably longer (about ___ feet [___ m]) than the large intestine (5 feet [1.5 m]).
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20, 6
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What is located in the central and lower abdominal cavity and held in place by the mesentery?
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Small Intestine
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The small intestine performs three functions:
1) Receives chyme from the ___ and digestive juices from the ___ (bile) and ___ (digestive enzymes); the process of digestion is completed within the small intestine
2) ___ the end products of digestion and key substances such as iron and vitamins.
3) ___ the unabsorbed content into the large intestine.
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stomach, liver, pancreas
Absorbs
Moves
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What are the three parts of the small intestine?
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Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
What is the first segment of the small intestine?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Duodenum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
The word duodenum literally means “___” (duo means “___”; denum means “___”).
In this case, the reference is to the width of ___ fingers.
Thus the length of the duodenum is ___ fingerbreadths or approximately 10 inches (25 cm).
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
twelve, two, ten
12
12
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
What is considered the meeting point for digestion?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Duodenum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
In addition to receiving chyme from the stomach, the ___ also receives secretions from several accessory organs of digestion, such as the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
These secretions—in addition to those from the mouth, stomach, and ___—are responsible for the digestion of all food.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
duodenum x 2
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Most digestion and absorption occur in the ___ and the first third of the ___, the next segment.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
duodenum
jejunum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
What is the second segment of the small intestine?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Jejunum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Which part of the small intestine is approximately 8 feet (2.4 m) long?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Jejunum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Digestion and absorption of food occur in the first ___ of the jejunum.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
third
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
What is the third segment of the small intestine and approximately 12 feet (3.6 m) long?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Ileum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
The ileum extends from the jejunum distally to the ___ ___, which prevents the reflux of contents from the cecum (first part of the large intestine) back into the ileum.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
ileocecal sphincter
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Which part of the small intestine completes the process of absorption of digestive end products, vitamin B12, and bile salts?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Ileum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
The lining of the ___ contains numerous patches of lymphatic tissue called Peyer’s patches, which participate in the immune response to a heavy bacterial load.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
ileum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
The ileum performs another important role as an “___ ___.”
Through a reflex mechanism, the presence of fatty acids in the ileum causes it to slow gut motility.
Certain foods affects gut motility and secretion.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
ileal brake
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
The wall of the small intestine forms circular folds with finger-like projections called ___.
The epithelial cells of each ___ form extensions called ___.
The absorptive surfaces of this large number of ___ and ___ increase the amount of digested food and water that can be absorbed.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
villi
villi, microvilli
villi, microvilli
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Each villi consists of a layer of epithelial tissue that surrounds a network of blood capillaries and a lymphatic capillary called a ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
lacteal
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
What absorbs the end products of digestion from the small intestine into the blood capillaries or the lacteal?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Villi
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
Capillary blood within the ___ drains into the hepatic portal system and then into the liver.
Thus the end products of carbohydrate and protein digestion first go to the liver for processing before being distributed throughout the body.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
villi
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 438)
End products of fat digestion enter the lacteal, forming a milky-white lymph called ___.
The ___ empties directly into the lymphatic system and eventually into the general circulation
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 439)
chyle x 2
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 439)
In addition to forming a site for absorption, the cells of the intestinal wall secrete several digestive enzymes and two important hormones: ___and ___ (___).
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 439)
secretin
cholecystokinin (CCK)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 439)
Like other parts of the digestive tract, ___ moves its digestive contents through the small intestines.
The ___ in the small intestine, however, is unique.
Instead of merely pushing the digestive contents forward, the muscle activity also generates a swishing and swaying motion.
This motion continually washes the nutrient-rich digestive contents across the ___, thereby increasing absorption.
That which is not absorbed is moved forward by ___ waves toward the large intestine.
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 439, 440)
peristalsis
peristalsis
villi
peristaltic
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 439, 440)
Small Intestine
A) Folds of the Intestinal Wall
B) Single Villi
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 439)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 439)
What is approximately 5 feet (1.5 m) long and extends from the ileocecal sphincter to the anus?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
Large Intestine
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
What are the four parts of the large intenstine?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
Cecum
Colon
Rectum
Anal Canal
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
What is the first part of the large intestine?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
Cecum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
What is located in the right lower quadrant (RLQ) and ascends on the right side as the ascending colon?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
Cecum
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
Attached to the cecum is the ___, a wormlike structure that contains lymphatic tissue and is a source of immune cells.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
appendix
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
Occasionally the appendix becomes inflamed, causing appendicitis, and must be surgically removed through an ___.
Failure to remove an inflamed appendix may cause it to rupture, discharging fecal material into the peritoneal cavity and causing a life-threatening infection called ___.
___ ___ quadrant (___ ___ Q) pain: think appendicitis.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
appendectomy
peritonitis
Right Lower Quadrant (RLQ)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 440)
The ___ colon ascends on the right side and curves acutely near the liver at the hepatic flexure.
As it crosses the upper abdomen, it is known as the ___ colon.
The colon then bends near the spleen at the splenic flexure to become the ___ colon, which descends on the left side of the abdomen into an S-shaped segment called the ___ colon.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
ascending
transverse
descending
sigmoid
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)v
Structures distal to the ___ colon include the rectum, anal canal, and anus.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
sigmoid
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
The anal canal ends at the anus, a structure composed primarily of two sphincter muscles (an ___ ___ sphincter and a ___ ___ sphincter).
The sphincters are closed except during the expulsion of ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
involuntary internal, voluntary external
feces
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
What is the waste that is composed primarily of non-digestible food residue, shed intestinal cells, and a host of microorganisms; it forms the stool, or bowel movement (BM)?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
Feces
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
What refers to the expulsion of feces?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
Defecation
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
In addition to the segments, note the band of connective tissue running lengthwise along the large intestine.
It is called the ___ ___, which causes the large intestine to pucker, thereby forming pouches called ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
tenia coli
haustra
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
The four functions of the large intestine are as follows:
1) Absorption of water and ___.
2) Synthesis of certain vitamins by the intestinal bacteria (especially vitamin ___ and some ___ vitamins).
3) Temporary ___ site of waste (feces).
4) ___ of waste from the body (defecation).
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
electrolytes
K, B
storage
Elimination
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
Intermittent and well-spaced muscle movements slowly move the fecal material from the ___ through the colon.
Forceful peristaltic waves occur only two to three times per day, producing mass movements that finally push the feces into the ___ for expulsion.
As the fecal material moves through the colon, ___ is continuously reabsorbed from the feces, across the intestinal wall, into the capillaries.
Consequently, as the feces enter the ___, it has changed from a watery consistency to a semisolid mass.
Feces that remain in the large intestine for an extended period lose excess ___, and the person experiences constipation.
Rapid movement through the intestine allows insufficient time for ___ reabsorption, causing diarrhea.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
cecum
rectum
water
rectum
water
water
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
Gut microbiota (also known as ___ ___)—mostly bacteria, viruses, and protozoa—are toiling away 24/7.
These mostly unidentified tiny critters make up a mass weighing as much as ___ lbs.
In fact, we have 10 times more microbes in our gut and on our skin than we have human cells.
For this reason, some investigators refer to the microbiota as a functioning organ.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
normal flora
3
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
What synthesizes vitamins, participates in immune response, modifies hormonal activity, affects appetite, and assists with learning, memory, and mood?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
Microbiota
Normal Flora
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
The average person expels about ___ mL of gas/day.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
500
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
The expelled gas is called ___, and the process is called ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
flatus
flatulence
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
Gas is normally produced from air that is swallowed and as a by-product of digestion, especially of gas-producing foods.
Postsurgically, you will often hear surgeons ask patients if they have been “passing gas” as indicates that ___ activity, which often diminishes during surgery.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
peristaltic
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
Large Intestine
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 441)
Three important organs—the ___, ___, and ___—empty their secretions into the duodenum.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
liver
gallbladder
pancreas
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
What are the three organs that provide secretions necessary for the digestion of food?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancreas
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
What is the large, reddish-brown organ located in the mid- and right upper abdominal cavity?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
Liver
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
Which organ lies immediately below the diaphragm; much of it is tucked up under the right rib cage?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
Liver
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 442)
The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing about ___ lbs, and has two main lobes: a larger ___ lobe and a smaller ___ lobe separated by a ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 442, 443)
3
right
left
ligament
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 442, 443)
What secures the liver to surrounding structures?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 443)
Ligament
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 443)
The liver is surrounded by a fibrous membrane called a ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 443)
capsule
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 443)
What word refers to the liver?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 443)
Hepatic
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 443)
The liver is essential for life and performs many vital functions, including the following:
- Synthesis of ___ ___ and secretion of ___
- Synthesis of ___ ___
- Storage
- Detoxification
- Excretion
- Metabolism of ___
- Metabolism of ___
- Metabolism of ___
- Phagocytosis
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 443, 444)
bile salts, bile
plasma proteins
carbohydrates
protein
fats
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 443, 444)
___ ___ play an important role in fat digestion and in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 443, 444)
Bile salts
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 443)
The secretion of ___ is the main digestive function of the liver.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
bile
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 443)
The ___ ___ play an important role in maintaining blood volume and controlling blood coagulation.
With inadequate production of ___, water cannot be retained within the blood vessels and generalized edema develops.
With inadequate production of blood coagulation factors, hemostasis is impaired and the person is at risk for bleeding.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
plasma proteins
albumin
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
The liver stores many substances: glucose in the form of ___, the ___-___ vitamins (A, D, E, and K), and vitamin ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
glycogen
fat-soluble
B12
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
The liver plays an important role in the ___ of metabolites, drugs and other harmful substances.
The liver changes these toxic substances into substances that can be more easily eliminated from the body by the kidneys.
The liver is the most important organ in the ___ of drugs.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
detoxification
biotransformation
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
The liver excretes many substances, including ___, cholesterol, and drugs.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
bilirubin
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
The liver plays an important role in the regulation of blood glucose levels.
If they rise above normal, the liver removes excess ___ from the blood, converts it to ___, and then stores it for future use.
If blood glucose levels decline below normal, the liver makes ___ from ___ and nonglucose substances (___) and releases it into the blood.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
glucose, glycogen
glucose, glycogen, (gluconeogenesis)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
The liver can make a variety of different ___ ___.
Also, because only the liver contains the urea cycle enzymes, nitrogen (from ___) is converted to urea in the liver for eventual excretion by the kidneys.
Free ___ in the blood is toxic to humans.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
amino acids
ammonia
ammonia
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
The liver can break down ___ ___, synthesize cholesterol and phospholipids, and convert excess dietary protein and carbohydrates to ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
fatty acids
fat
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
What are hepatic macrophages that phagocytose bacteria and other substances?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
Kupffer
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
The liver has a unique arrangement of blood vessels called the ___ ___ ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
hepatic portal system
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
The liver receives a lot of blood, approximately ___ L/min, from two sources: the ___ ___ ___, which provides most of the blood, and the ___ ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
1.5
hepatic portal vein
hepatic artery
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
What drains blood from all of the organs of digestion and brings blood rich in digestive end products to the liver?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
Hepatic Portal Vein
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
What delivers oxygen-rich blood from the aorta to the liver?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
Hepatic Artery
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
Blood leaves the liver through the ___ ___ and empties into the ___ ___ ___, where it is returned to the heart for recirculation.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
hepatic veins
inferior vena cava
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
The liver contains thousands of liver ___, the functional units of the liver.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
lobules
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
Each liver lobule consists of a special arrangement of blood vessels and ___ ___ (___).
The central vein and rows of ___ ___ radiate away from the central vein.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
hepatic cells (hepatocytes)
hepatic cells
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
Hepatocytes are bathed by blood, which enters the lobule from both the ___ ___ and the ___ ___.
Blood from these two blood vessels mixes in the liver in spaces called ___, or large pore capillaries.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
hepatic artery, portal vein
sinusoids
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
Which cells extract water and dissolved substances from the sinusoidal blood?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
Hepatocytes
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
Hepatic cells then secrete a greenish-yellow substance called bile into tiny canals called ___.
These tiny bile canals merge with canals from other lobules to form larger ___ ___ ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
canaliculi
hepatic bile ducts
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
Bile exits from the liver through two ___ ___ ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
hepatic bile ducts
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
What is a greenish-yellow secretion produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Bile
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Bile is composed primarily of water, electrolytes, cholesterol, ___ ___, and ___ ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
bile pigments
bile salts
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
What includes bilirubin and biliverdin, formed from the hemoglobin of worn-out red blood cells?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Bile Pigments
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
What are the most abundant constituents of bile?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Bile Salts
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Only the ___ ___ have a digestive function; they play an important role in fat digestion and in the absorption of fat-soluble vitamins.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
bile salts
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Between ___ and ___ mL of bile is secreted per day.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
800
1000
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Bile pigments, especially ___ (a breakdown product of bilirubin), also give the stool a brownish color.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
urobilinogen
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
With gallbladder disease, a gallstone sometimes becomes lodged in the ___ ___ ___, blocks the flow of bile into the duodenum, and deprives the stools of brown pigments.
___ ___ ___ obstruction is therefore characterized by colourless, gray, or clay-colored stools.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
common bile duct
Common bile duct
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
The ducts that connect the liver, gallbladder, and duodenum are called the ___ ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
biliary tree
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
What is the network of ducts that includes the hepatic bile ducts, cystic duct, and common bile duct?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Biliary Tree
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
What receives bile from the canaliculi in the liver lobules?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Hepatic Bile Ducts
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
The hepatic ducts merge with the cystic duct to form the ___ ___ ___, which carries bile from the hepatic ducts (liver) and the cystic duct (gallbladder) to the duodenum.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
common bile duct
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
The base of the common bile duct swells to form the ___ ___ (___ of ___).
The ___ ___ ___ joins the common bile duct at this point.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
hepatopancreatic ampulla (Ampulla of Vater)
main pancreatic duct
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
The ___ ___ (___ of ___) encircles the base of the ampulla, where it enters the duodenum.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
What helps to regulate the delivery of bile to the duodenum and is sensitive to nervous, hormonal, and pharmacologic control?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Hepatopancreatic Sphincter (Sphincter of Oddi)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 444)
What is a pear-shaped sac attached to the underside of the liver?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Gallbladder
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
What connects the gallbladder with the common bile duct?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Cystic Duct
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
What is produced in the liver and flows through the hepatic ducts and into the cystic duct and gallbladder?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Bile
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
What concentrates and stores bile?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Gallbladder
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
The gallbladder concentrates about ___ mL of bile each day.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
1200
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
The presence of dietary fat in the duodenum stimulates the release of the hormone ___ (___).
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
cholecystokinin (CCK)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
What enters the bloodstream and circulates to the gallbladder, where it causes the smooth muscle of the gallbladder to contract?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
When the gallbladder (relaxes/contracts), the bile is ejected into the cystic duct and then into the common bile duct and duodenum.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
contracts
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 445)
What is the accessory organ of digestion, located just below the stomach?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Pancreas
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
The head of the ___ rests in the curve of the duodenum; the tail lies near the spleen in the left upper quadrant of the abdominal cavity.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
pancreas
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
The main pancreatic duct travels the length of the pancreas where it joins the common bile duct at the ___ ___ (___ of ___).
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
What carries digestive enzymes from the pancreas to the duodenum—the meeting point for digestion?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Pancreatic Duct
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
The pancreas secretes both endocrine and exocrine substances.
The exocrine secretions include the ___ ___ and an ___ secretion.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
digestive enzymes
alkaline
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Which cells secrete the pancreatic enzymes in their inactive form?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Acinar
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
___ travel through the main pancreatic duct to the duodenum where they are activated.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Enzymes
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
What secretions form the pancreatic juice (1400 mL/day)?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Enzymes
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Premature activation of proteolytic enzymes within the ___ causes autodigestion of the ___ itself, a very painful and potentially lethal condition.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
pancreas x 2
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
The ___ enzymes are the most important of all the digestive enzymes.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
pancreatic
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
In addition to the digestive enzymes, the pancreas also secretes an alkaline juice rich in ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
bicarbonate
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
___ neutralizes the highly acidic chyme coming from the stomach into the duodenum.
This neutralization is important because the digestive enzymes in the duodenum work best in an alkaline environment.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
bicarbonate
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
The secretion of the digestive enzymes and bicarbonate is under nervous (___) and hormonal control.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
vagus
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
The presence of food in the stomach and duodenum is the stimulus for nervous and hormonal responses.
For example, the presence of chyme in the duodenum stimulates the release of the hormone ___ (___) from the duodenal walls.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
cholecystokinin (CCK)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
What travels by way of the blood to the pancreas, stimulating the release of pancreatic digestive enzymes?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Which hormone affects the gallbladder, pancreas, and stomach?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
What stimulates the gallbladder to contract and release bile, it stimulates the pancreas to secrete digestive enzymes, and it slows gastric emptying—all activities that encourage digestion and absorption?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Cholecystokinin (CCK)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Acid chyme in the duodenum stimulates the release of a second hormone, ___, from the duodenal walls.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
secretin
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
What travels by way of the blood to the pancreas, stimulating release of bicarbonate-rich juice?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Secretin
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
What neutralizes gastric acid, thereby creating an alkaline environment—that in which the digestive enzymes work best?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Bicarbonate
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Which digestion is the physical breakdown of food into small pieces; achieved by the chewing activity of the mouth and by the mixing and churning activities of the muscles of the digestive organs?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Mechanical
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Which digestion occurs primarily in response to digestive enzymes and other digestive aids?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Chemical
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Food is made up of ___, ___, and ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
carbohydrates
proteins
fats
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Digestive enzymes and several digestive agents [mucus, hydrochloric acid (HCl), and bile] play key roles in ___ digestion.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
chemical
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Specific ___ digest each type of food.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
enzymes
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
What are classified according to size?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Carbohydrates
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
___ are single (___) sugars (___).
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Monosaccharides
mono
saccharides
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
What are the three monosaccharides?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Glucose
Fructose
Galactose
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
What is the most important of the three monosaccharides?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Glucose
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
___ are double (___) sugars.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Disaccharides
di
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
The three disaccharides are ___ (table sugar), ___, and ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
sucrose
lactose
maltose
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
___ are many (___) glucose molecules linked together.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Polysaccharides
poly
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
The shorter monosaccharides and disaccharides are called ___; the longer-chain polysaccharides are ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
sugars
starches
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
A polysaccharide is digested in two stages: first, enzymes called ___ degrade the polysaccharide into disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, and lactose).
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
amylases
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
The two amylases are salivary amylase (___) and ___ amylase.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
ptyalin
pancreatic
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
What degrades disaccharides (sucrose, maltose, lactose) into monosaccharides?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
Disaccharidases
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 446)
The three disaccharidases, located within the intestinal mucosal cells, are ___, ___, and ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 446, 447)
sucrase
lactase
maltase
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 446, 447)
The ending -___ indicates an enzyme.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
ase
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
What are split into monosaccharides in the duodenum and jejunum at the surface of the villi?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
Disaccharides
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
What are immediately absorbed into the blood capillaries of the villus?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
Monosaccharides
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
Certain carbohydrates, such as ___, cannot be digested and therefore remain in the lumen of the digestive system.
Although providing no direct nourishment, dietary ___ is beneficial in that it provides fiber and bulk to the stool.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
cellulose x 2
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
Many persons suffer from a deficiency of the enzyme ___.
They are unable to digest the sugar found in milk (___) and are said to be intolerant.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
lactase
lactose
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
What are the building blocks of proteins?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
Amino Acids
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
Several amino acids linked together form a ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
peptide
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
Many amino acids linked together form a ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
polypeptide
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
___ are very long polypeptide chains; some contain more than one polypeptide chain.
To be absorbed across the wall of the digestive tract, these chains must be uncoiled and degraded into small ___ and ___ ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
Proteins
peptides
amino acids
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
Enzymes called ___, or ___enzymes, digest proteins.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
proteases
proteolytic
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 447)
Proteases are secreted by three organs: the stomach secretes ___, the intestinal cells secrete ___, and the pancreas secretes several proteases, including ___, ___, and ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 447, 448)
pepsinogen
peptidase
trypsinogen
chymotrypsinogen
carboxypeptidase
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 447, 448)
The ___ proteases, once activated within the duodenum, are the most potent proteases.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
pancreatic
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
What are broken down into small peptides and amino acids and are absorbed across the intestinal villi into the blood capillaries?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
Proteins
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
Proteolytic activity is enhanced by both ___ ___ (___) and ___.
Although not an enzyme, ___ ___ (___) aids protein digestion.
First, the ___ ___ (___) unravels the strands of protein, making the protein fragments more sensitive to the proteases.
Second, the ___ ___ (___) activates a gastric proteolytic enzyme, pepsinogen, into pepsin.
Pepsin then facilitates the digestion of protein into small peptides.
___, located within the intestinal mucosa, activates trypsinogen into trypsin, a powerful proteolytic enzyme.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
hydrochloric acid (HCl), enterokinase
hydrochloric acid (HCl) x 3
Enterokinase
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
What are the long-chain fatty acids attached to glycerol?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
Fats
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
Enzymes called ___ digest fats.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
lipases
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
____ lipases are the most important.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
Pancreatic
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 448)
The end products of fat digestion are ___ ___ and ___; fat is absorbed into the ___ of the villi.
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 448, 449)
fatty acids
glycerol
lacteal
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 448, 449)
What is necessary for fat digestion?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
Bile
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
Fats, unlike carbohydrates or proteins, are not soluble in water; they tend to clump together into large ___ ___ when added to water.
If, for example, oil and water are placed in a test tube, the oil and water separate; the oil rises to the surface, and the water settles at the bottom.
Oil and water simply do not mix.
The same separation occurs in the digestive tract.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
fat globules
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
Dietary fat tends to form large fat globules.
The ___ cannot readily digest the fat; it can attack only the outside surface of the fat globule.
___ solves the problem of the large fat globule.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
lipase
Bile
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
Bile can split large fat globules into thousands of tiny fat globules.
This process is ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
emulsification
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
What is the process that allows lipases to work on the surfaces of all the tiny fat globules, thereby digesting more fat?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
Emulsification
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
Bile performs two other important roles.
Bile salts prevent the ___ ___ (end products of fat digestion) from re-forming large fat globules in the intestine before they can be absorbed across the intestinal villi.
Bile salts also help the absorption of the fat-soluble vitamins ___, ___, ___, and ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
fatty acids
A, D, E, K
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 449)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
What is the science that studies the relationship of food to the functioning of the body?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Nutrition
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Food consists of ___, substances the body uses to promote normal growth, maintenance, and repair.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
nutrients
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
What are the five categories of nutrients?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Vitamins
Minerals
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Dietary carbohydrates are classified as ___ ___ and ___ ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
simple sugars
complex carbohydrates
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
What is composed of monosaccharides and disaccharides?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Simple Sugar
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
What is the simplest carbohydrate?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Glucose
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
What is the major fuel used to make adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in most body cells?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Glucose
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Most ___ come from plants.
The ___ are derived primarily from fruit, sugar cane, and milk.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
carbohydrates
sugars
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
What are the larger sugar molecules (polysaccharides) that consist primarily of starch and fiber?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Complex Carbohydrates
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
What is found in cereal grains (wheat, oats, corn, barley), legumes (peas, beans), and root vegetables, such as potatoes?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Starch
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
___, or ___, is found primarily in vegetables.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Fiber
cellulose
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Most dietary carbohydrates should be in the form of ___ ___ for two reasons.
First, ___ ___ usually provide other nutrients, whereas simple sugars provide “empty calories” (nothing but calories).
Second, ___ ___ are absorbed at a slower rate than sugars, thereby preventing a sudden spike in blood glucose.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
complex carbohydrates x 3
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
The spiking of blood___ has been linked to an oversecretion of insulin, impaired cellular uptake of ___ and hypertension.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
glucose x 2
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
The ___ ___ is a guide for the selection of dietary carbohydrates; it is a term that identifies the effects that foods exert on blood sugar.
For example, rice and “peeps” are foods that have a high ___ ___, meaning that they are digested and absorbed rapidly, thereby spiking blood sugar.
String beans have a low ___ ___; they are digested and absorbed more slowly and do not spike the blood sugar.
The carbohydrates with a lower ___ ___ are better dietary choices.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
glycemic index x 4
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Dietary ___ supply the body with amino acids.
Because the body cannot store amino acids, a daily supply is necessary.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
proteins
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
What are classified as complete or incomplete?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Proteins
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
A ___ protein contains all essential amino acids.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
complete
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Which proteins are found in animal sources such as meat, eggs, and dairy products?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Complete
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Which proteins do not contain all of the essential amino acids, and and include vegetable proteins such as nuts, grains, and legumes?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Incomplete
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Vegetable proteins, if eaten in combination, can supply a ___ complement of amino acids.
For example, a favorite Mexican dish containing rice and beans is complete in that it supplies all the essential amino acids, even though both the rice and the beans are ___ proteins.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
complete
incomplete
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Most dietary ___ are triglycerides, or molecules that contain glycerol and fatty acids.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
lipids
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
What are classified as saturated or unsaturated?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Fatty Acids
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 450)
Which fatty acids (e.g., butter, lard) come primarily from animal sources and are solid at room temperature?
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 450, 451)
Saturated
(Herlihy, 2020, pp. 450, 451)
Which fatty acids include artificially hardened, or hydrogenated, fats such as vegetable shortening and margarine?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Saturated
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Which fat is liquid at room temperature and is called an oil?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Unsaturated
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
The body can synthesize all fatty acids with one exception: ___ ___, an important component of cell membranes.
Because the body cannot synthesize it, ___ ___ is an essential fatty acid and therefore must be included in the diet.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
linoleic acid x 2
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Foods high in fat come from both animal and plant sources.
Animal sources, however, tend to contain more ___ fat.
They include meat, eggs, butter, and whole-milk products such as cheese.
Plant sources include coconut oil and palm oil.
Hydrogenated vegetable oils in shortening and margarine are also high in ___ fat.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
saturated
saturated
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
What are the small organic molecules that help regulate cell metabolism?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Vitamins
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
What are a part of the enzymes or other organic substances that are essential for normal cell function and classified as fat soluble or water soluble?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Vitamins
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Fat-soluble vitamins include vitamins ___, ___, ___, and ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
A, D, E, K
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Water-soluble vitamins include vitamins ___ and ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
B, C
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Which vitamins, for the most part, are not stored by the body?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Water-Soluble
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
Excess ___-___ vitamins are generally excreted in the urine.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
water-soluble
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
What are inorganic substances necessary for normal body function?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 452)
Minerals
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 452)
What has numerous functions, ranging from regulation of plasma volume (sodium, chloride) to bone growth (calcium) to oxygen transport (iron) to the regulation of metabolic rate (iodine)?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 452)
Minerals
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 452)
What deficiencies can cause serious health problems?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 452)
Mineral
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 452)
A ___ ___ contains all the essential nutrients and includes a variety of foods.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 453)
balanced diet
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 453)
What has often been displayed in the form of food wheels or food pyramids?
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 453)
Balanced Diet
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 453)
The latest design issued by the US Department of Agriculture is MyPlate (MyPlate.gov), in which ___ food groups are organized so as to emphasize the relative proportions of each group.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 453)
five
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 453)
Although overeating and obesity have been linked with health problems, a number of health problems are also related to a deficiency of certain foods.
For example, a diet high in cholesterol, fat, or both has been implicated in coronary artery disease, stroke, diabetes, and cancer.
Our huge consumption of ___ is also a factor in obesity and the high incidence of diabetes mellitus (and all its complications).
Deficient diets are also problematic.
For example, infants who are fed ___-poor diets (___-free milk) may become deficient in ___ essential for the development of nervous tissue, resulting in nerve damage and developmental delay.
In poverty-stricken areas of the world, protein deficiency diseases are common.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 453)
sugar
fat x 2, fats
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 453)
Overnutrition and undernutrition are both forms of ___.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 453)
malnutrition
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 453)
There is an area of the lateral hypothalamus called the ___ ___.
When destroyed, it leads to anorexia and starvation.
Another hypothalamic area is called the ___ ___; damage to it causes overeating and morbid obesity.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 454)
feeding center
satiety center
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 454)
There are numerous theories about what satisfies (produces satiety) and therefore suppresses appetite.
The ___ hypothesis states that the satiety center contains neurons called ___ that absorb glucose and send inhibitory information to the feeding center.
In response, appetite diminishes.
The lipostat hypothesis states that adipocytes (fat cells) secrete an appetite-suppressing hormone called ___.
In response, “stop eating” signals are ignored.
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 454)
glucostat, glucostats
leptin
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 454)
Digestion and Absorption
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
(Herlihy, 2020, p. 451)
