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GI > Digestion in exotics > Flashcards

Digestion in exotics Flashcards

1
Q

Describe the beak

A
  • Differs due to diet and habitat
  • Crushing in seed eaters, tearing in carnivores
  • Consists of bone, vascular dermis with modified keratinised germinal layer
  • Covered with leathery keratin
  • Epithelium has thick stratum corneum (hard)
  • High density of mechanoreceptors, stimulated during feeding
  • Upper jaw rigid trangular block (premaxillary, nasal bones, small maxilla)
  • Flat mandible
  • Elastic zone articulation between upper jaw and cranium
  • In larger birds is synovial joint
  • Egg tooth on rostral beak of newly hatched
  • Many muscles to close jaw, one to open
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2
Q

Why is there such diversity in the class Aves?

A
  • Diverse diets/habitats
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3
Q

Describe the oropharynx of birds

A
  • No soft palate, oral cavity or pharynx - all in one
  • Choana connects nasal cavity and oropharynx
  • Infundibular cleft caudal to choana (common opening for eustachian tubes)
  • Hyoid apparatus supports keratinised tongue
  • No teeth
  • Tubular salivary glands (mucin, some species amylase)
  • More mucoid than mammalian
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4
Q

Describe the proximal oesophagus of birds

A
  • Oesophagus dilates to accomodate unmasticated food

- Right of neck, vagal control

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5
Q

Describe the crop of birds

A
  • Crop small pouch or large structure with basic sphincter (variation)
  • Cranial to thoracic inlet
  • Histologically siimilar to oesophagus, fewer mucus glands
  • Food stored in crop
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6
Q

What is the function of the crop in birds?

A
  • Food storage
  • Degradation of starch (salivary amylase)
  • Bacterial fermentation (gram positive bacteria and Candida)
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7
Q

Describe the proventriculus of birds

A
  • Glandular
  • Similar to mammalian stomach
  • Left in craniodorsal body cavity, nno oesophageal sphincter
  • Between proventriculus and gizzard is isthmus
  • Produces HCl and pepsinogen from oxynticopeptic cells
  • Other epithelial cells produce mucus
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8
Q

Describe the gizzard of birds

A
  • Muscular
  • Similar function to mammalian teeth
  • Left of midline caudal to sternum
  • Protein digestion, mechanical food breakdown, smooth muscle
  • Kiolin tough lining of gizzard, protects mucosa, formed from mucosal cell secretions, composed of proein and carbs, stained yellow with bile reflux from duodenum
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9
Q

Describe the mechanics of eating in birds

A
  • Papillae in oropharynx directed caudally
  • Move food in conjunction with tongue and gravity
  • Tip head upwards
  • no soft palate or pharyngeal muscles, no peristalsis to facilitate swallowing
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10
Q

Describe the mechanics of drinking in birds

A
  • Birds immerse beak in water when drinking
  • Water moved caudally in oropharynx by movement of tongue
  • Tipping head, water enters oesophagus
  • Pssitacines use tongue to lap water
  • Laryngeal mound not protected by epiglottis
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11
Q

Describe the location of the epiglottis in birds

A

Birds do not have an epiglottis

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12
Q

Describe the mechanics of the crop

A
  • Peristaltic movements oesophagus to crop
  • Emptying of proventriculus stimulates crop to move food caudally
  • Crop motility regulated by vagal impulses
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13
Q

What is unusual about the crops in columbiformes?

A
  • Pigeons
  • Epithelial cells sensitive to prolactin
  • Production of crop milk, regurgitated for young
  • Also penguins and flamingos
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14
Q

What muscles of the gizzard contract for prograde movement?

A
  • Thin muscles

- Ingesta to duodenum

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15
Q

What muscles in the gizzard contract for retrograde movement?

A
  • Thick muscles

- Ingesta to proventriculus

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16
Q

Describe particle movement in the stomach of birds

A
  • Stimulated by particle size discrimintationin gizzard
  • Small particles to duodenum
  • Large stay (herbivores) or regurgitated (carnivores)
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17
Q

Describe the process of egestion in birds

A
  • Egestion of bones
  • Occurs after nutritious component of prey has been digested
  • During reflux gastric motility inhibited
  • Pellet expelled through mouth by oesophageal antiperistalsis
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18
Q

Describe digestion in owls

A
  • Egest after every meal
  • Eat whole carcass
  • No storage capacity in crops
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19
Q

Describe digestion in Falconiformes

A
  • Tear prey apart
  • Use crop for storage
  • Digest bony material
  • Egest once daily
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20
Q

Describe digestion in herbivorous birds

A
  • Grit to aid mechanical digestion in gizzard
  • If high in calcium grit needs repleneshing
  • Dissolves in acidic conditions
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21
Q

Describe the liver of birds

A
  • Right and left lobe
  • Gall bladder contained within right lobe
  • Left and right bile ducts enter distal duodenum
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22
Q

In what families of birds is the gall bladder absent?

A
  • Psittaciformes
  • Columbiformes
  • Struthioniformes
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23
Q

Describe the bile of birds

A
  • Bile aids emulsification of fats, also contains amylase and lipase
  • Many birds lack bilirubin reductase
  • Biliverdin main bile pigment
  • Reabsorbed in duodenum, back to liver via enterohepatic circulation
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24
Q

How can hepatic malfunction be measured in birds?

A

Raised bile acids

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25
Q

Describe the pancreas of birds

A
  • Lies within duodenal loop
  • In poultry dorsal and ventral lobes connected distally
  • Exo and endocrine gland
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26
Q

Describe the small intestine of birds

A
  • Short (facilitates high metabolic rate)
  • Histologically little difference between duodenum, ileum and jejunum
  • Merkel’s diverticulum present
  • Thin walled, narrow, normal layers
  • Epithelia does not contain lacteals
  • D. higher pH than gizzard
  • Amylase and esterase
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27
Q

What is the lymph drainage of the intestines in birds?

A
  • No mesenteric lymph nodes

- Lymphoid nodules (Peyer’s patches) in lamina propria

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28
Q

Why is the pH higher in the duodenum then the gizzard?

A
  • Secretions from pancreas and gall bladder

- Digestion and absorption process similar to mammals

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29
Q

Describe the caeca of birds

A
  • Blind ending sacs
  • Ileocaecocolic junction
  • Gram positive bacteria and protozoa
  • Lymphoid material at proximal end = caecal tonsils
  • Aid digestion of cellulose
  • Vary in size
  • Cannot utilise proteins formed by bacteria in caeca
  • Antiperistaltic movements cause transport of chyme into caeca
  • Small particles retained, coarse fibre excreted
  • Caeca emptied a few times a day
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30
Q

Describe the appearance of caecal droppings

A
  • Caramel coloured

- More fluid

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31
Q

Describe the large intestine of birds

A
  • Short
  • Walls no thicker than small intestine
  • Reabsorb water and electrolytes
  • Can absorb glucose and AAs in colon by secondary active transport
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32
Q

Describe the cloaca of birds

A
  • Termination of digestive and urogenital tracts

- 3 compartments: copradeum, urodeum, proctodeum

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33
Q

Describe the copradeum of birds

A
  • Most cranial department of cloaca
  • Where rectum empties
  • Absorption of water and ions
  • Can distend massively with faecal material
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34
Q

Describe the urodeum of birds

A
  • Beyond coprourodeal fold

- Ureters and genital ducts empty into dorsal wall

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35
Q

Describe the protodeum of birds

A
  • Empties contents into vent on relaxation of external anal sphincter
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36
Q

What are some commonly encountered digestive diseases seen in domesticated birds?

A
  • Malnutrition and digestive disorders common
  • Enteritis (lack of grit)
  • Coccidiosis (caused by coprophagy)
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37
Q

List the features of the reptile mouth

A
  • Mucous glands
  • Salivary glands
  • Venom glands
  • Tongue
  • Glottis
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38
Q

Describe the mouth mucous glands of reptiles

A
  • Most prominent in squamates
  • Multicellular
  • Lubricate prey, help swallowing
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39
Q

Describe the salivary glands of reptiles

A
  • Palatine, lingual, subligual, labial, dental

- Lubrication

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40
Q

Describe reptilian venom glands

A
  • Sublingual (Helodermatid lizards)
  • Temporal (Elapidae, Viperidae)
  • Venom complex - various toxins and enzymes
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41
Q

What is the function of venom in reptiles?

A
  • Immobilise prey

- May have some digestive function

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42
Q

Describe the tongue in snakes

A
  • In sheath under epiglottis
  • Highly mobile
  • Forked
  • Heavily keratinised, few taste buds
  • For olfaction
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43
Q

Describe Jacobson’s organ

A
  • Accessory paired olfactory organ
  • Most developed in snakes
  • Roof of oral cavity
  • Vomeronasal organ
  • Chemical scents
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44
Q

Describe the tongue of lizards

A
  • Mobile, protrusible

- Fleshy or keratinised

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45
Q

Describe the tongue of chelonians

A
  • Large
  • Fleshy
  • Immobile
  • Many taste buds
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46
Q

Describe the glottis of snakes

A
  • On floor of oral cavity
  • Rostral
  • Highly moveable
  • Allows breathign during eating (snorkel effect)
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47
Q

Where is the glottis located in lizards and chelonians?

A

Base of tongue

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48
Q

Describe the oesophagus of reptiles

A
  • Mechanical and enzymatic digestion
  • Thin
  • Fragile
49
Q

Describe the oesophagus of snakes in particular

A
  • Highly distensible
  • Largely amuscular
  • No well define gastroesophageal sphincter (easily regurgitate)
  • May store food
50
Q

Describe the stomach of reptiles

A
  • Similar to mammals
  • Pepsin, HCl from gastric mucosa
  • Chelonians have gastrooesophageal and pyloric sphincters
  • In squamates is highly distensible
  • In snakes stomach not prominent, digestion begins when prey reaches stomach, faster if inject venom
51
Q

What factors affect the function of the stomach in reptiles?

A
  • Body temp
  • Hydration
  • Food type
  • Meal size
  • General health
52
Q

Describe the small intestines of reptiles

A
  • Surface area: herbivore>omnivore>carnivore
  • Need large surface area for microbial fermentation
  • In snake relatively straight
  • In lizards and chelonians convulted
  • Mucosal surface variable
53
Q

What is significant about the large intestine or herbivorous reptiles?

A

Larger in herbivores

54
Q

Describe the gall bladder of reptiles

A
  • In chelonians and most lizards, GB close to liver

- In snakes and some lizards, GB far from liver

55
Q

Describe the pancreas of reptiles

A
  • In chelonians and lizards close to stomach and duodenum
  • In snakes form triad of spleen , pancreas and gall bladder
  • Enzymes depend on feeding strategy (e.g. chitinase, amylase, trypsin etc)
56
Q

Compare the rate of digestion in reptiles to mammals

A
  • Slower in reptiles, especially herbivorous
  • Rate of passage varies can be between 2-4 days in small carnivorous squamates and 3-5 weeks in large snakes, herbivorous chelonians and lizards
57
Q

Describe fat storage in reptiles

A
  • Little fat storage
  • Fat bodies, often caudal coelom
  • Base of tail in many lizards
58
Q

What are the types of dentition in reptiles?

A
  • Pleurodont

- Acrodont

59
Q

What is pleurodont dentition?

A
  • Labial wall present

- Shed and replaced

60
Q

What is acrodont dentition?

A
  • Sit on crest of bone

- Not replaced if lost

61
Q

Describe snake dentition

A
  • All pleurodont
  • 2 rows of maxillary teeth
  • No regional differentiation
  • Thin, point caudally so prey cannot escape
  • Different types of fangs
  • Posterior, anterior fixed, anterior hinged
62
Q

Describe chelonian dentition

A
  • No teeth
  • Sharp, keratinised beak instead
  • Egg tooth to break out of shell
63
Q

Describe the skull anatomy of squamates and why this is important

A
  • Cranial kinesis - can move upper and lower jaw
  • Quadrate bone loose articulation with lower jaw
  • Important for feeding, can eat large things
  • Jaw very mobile
  • Jaws close in parallel so prey is not “squeezed out”
64
Q

Describe the snake skull anatomy

A
  • No mandibular symphysis
  • Quadrate bone present
  • Can walk along prey with jaw while ingesting due to symphysis
65
Q

What sensory systems are present in reptiles?

A
  • Vision
  • Chemosensory (gustation, olfaction, vomerolfaction)
  • Thermal in some snakes
66
Q

Describe which and how some snakes can use thermal sensory systems in feeding

A
  • Boidae, Pythonidae, Viperidae
  • Heat pits detect temp of prey
  • Bilaterally symmetrical
  • Nostril, heat pit opening and ye closely related
  • Heat sensitive membrane inside pit organ
  • Locate prey via triangulation
67
Q

Compare herbivorous and carnivorous reptiles

A
  • Greater surface area of SI in H. (microbial fermentation)
  • Colon larger in H.
  • H. chelonians heavily convoluted colon, partitions (slow movement of food)
  • More intestinal microflora in H, longer GI tract
  • Young H. need innoculum of adult faeces
68
Q

Describe the GI microflora of reptiles

A
  • Aeroic, anaerobic, Gram neg, Gram pos, yeast, protozoa

- Most commensals are opportunistic pathogens

69
Q

Describe the GI system of amphibians

A
  • Short simple tract
  • Prey swallowed whole
  • Sphincter between oral cavity and oesophagus
  • Pyloric sphincter
  • Liver, GB, pancreas present
  • SI - enzymatic digestion (folding, villi for absorption)
  • LI - water, salt absorption
  • Cloaca
  • Little distinction between LI and Si, some species may have a sphincter
70
Q

Describe the digestive glands of amphibians

A
  • In buccal caavity have mucus and salivary glands (lubrication) and intermaxillary gland (sticky compound)
  • In oesophagus and stomach pepsinogen released
  • Liver bile
  • Pancreas diffuse, digestive enzymes and insulin
71
Q

List the organs of the GI system of fish

A
  • Oesophagus
  • Stomach (not present in all)
  • Intestine ( varies greatly)
  • Some fish have intestinal bulb instead
  • Pancreas, liver and GB present
72
Q

Describe the oesophagus of fish

A
  • Taste buds
  • Short, thick walled
  • Highly distensible
73
Q

Describe the stomach of fish

A
  • Not present in all
  • Striaght, U- or J-shaped (majority J)
  • U-shaped have diverticulum
  • Pyloric sphincter present
  • Some can inflate stomach by gasping
74
Q

Describe the intestine of fish

A
  • Length varies greatly
  • Longer in H than C
  • Some specieshave pyloric caeca (blind sacs at proximal intestine, absorptive)
  • Functional differentiation of segments
  • Proximal for lipids
  • Middle for proteins
  • Distal for ionic regulation
  • Thickened mucosa, spiral valve
  • H. have coiling
75
Q

Describe the pancreas, liver and GB of fish

A
  • Pancreas diffuse in most species, digestive enzymes and insulin
  • Liver no discrete lobes
  • GB empties into pyloric end of stomach
76
Q

Describe the diet of amphibians

A
  • “Larval” form herbivorous
  • Adults all carnivorous
  • Generalist predator, prey choice limited by size of animal
  • Often invertebrates, some larger eat invertebrates
77
Q

Describe amphibian dentition

A
  • Crowns curve towards pharynx
  • Shed and replace teeth throughout life (pleurodonts)
  • Varied locations of teeth
78
Q

Where are teeth located in salamanders and caecilians?

A

On maxilla and mandible

- Maxillary and vomerine teeth

79
Q

Where are teeth located in most frogs?

A

Maxilla only, used to hold prey, not chew

80
Q

Describe the dentition of fish

A
  • varies based on diet
  • Tooth like structure on bones derived from gill supports
  • No salivary glands
  • Some have pharyngeal teeth
81
Q

Describe the structure of the tongue in frogs and its role in feeding

A
  • Genioglossus protracts, hyoglossus retracts
  • Tailed fros (aquatic) - short tongue, caudal attachment
  • Most frogs longer tongue, cranial attachments, more elaborate hyoid skeleton and associated musculature, glandular pad attached to muscular base
82
Q

Describe the structure of the tongue in salamanders and newts and its role in feeding

A
  • Aquatic: suction, 1 way water flow
  • Terrestrial (newts) have thick sticky tongue, grabs presy, degree of tongue projection varies, posterior attachment tongue to hyoid
83
Q

What is the role of the swim bladder in fish?

A
  • Hydrostatic equilibrium, respiration, sound production

- Some have no swim bladder, use lipids instead

84
Q

Describe the structure of the swim bladder

A
  • Outgrowth of foregut
  • Dorsal most object in cavity
  • Can be connected to oesophagus by pneumatic duct or rete mirabile
85
Q

What are the two classifications of fish based on swim bladder type?

A

Physostomes

Physoclistus

86
Q

Describe physostome fish

A
  • Swim bladder connected to oesophagus by pneumatic duct
  • Gulp air to fill bladder
  • Food can enter accidentally - rots and fish dies
87
Q

Describe physoclistus fish

A
  • Swim bladder connected to oesophagus by rete mirabile
  • Capillary network as a source of gases
  • Do not have to come up and gulp for air = safer
  • Slower
88
Q

Describe the housing requirements of boas

A
  • Need full spectrum fluorescent bulb
  • Custom cages to cater for large size
  • Wire cage around bulb to prevent burns
  • Optimal temperature 25-30degreesC
  • Primary and secondary heat sources to create focal hot spots
  • Humidity 60-70%
  • Water bowl appropriate for size
  • Hide boxes
89
Q

Why are focal hot spots important in boa housing?

A

So the snake can find areas most comfortable to it and achieve their preferred optimal temperature zone

90
Q

Describe primary heat sources in boa housing

A
  • Keep enclosure within proper temperature range
  • Incandescent lights over cage
  • As size of snake increases, space heater may have to be used to heat a large enclosure
91
Q

Describe secondary heat sources in boa housing

A
  • To create heat in specific areas and offer choice
  • Heat mats or “banking lights”
  • Should not use rocks as heat sources as can cause severe burns
92
Q

Describe the dietary requirements of boas

A
  • At 9 months fed full grown mice/rates
  • Ensure are not wider than snake’s girth
  • Should be fed 5-7 days, extend to 10-14 days as grows
  • At 2-3 years (adult) feed every 2-4 weeks
93
Q

List calcium rich foods that can be fed to iguanas

A
  • Escarole
  • Kale
  • Collards
  • Bok choy
  • Swiss chard
  • Parsley
  • Clover
  • Alfalfa pellets
  • Dandelion greens
  • Turnip greens
  • Mustard greens
  • Beet greens and spinach occasionally
  • Never iceberg
94
Q

Why should iceberg lettuce not be included in an iguana’s diet?

A

Little to no nutritional value

95
Q

Describe the diet of an iguana

A
  • 60-70% calcium rich foods
  • Other vegetables
  • Small amounts of fruit
  • Very small amounts of grains/fibre
  • Strict herbivores
  • Should be fed mostly in the morning
96
Q

Why should iguanas be fed in the morning?

A
  • Are cold blooded

- Need the higher day temperatures for proper digestion

97
Q

Describe the optimal iguana environment

A
  • Supplemental heat for digestion
  • External heat sources
  • Primary and secondary heat source
  • Primary keeps whole enclosure in appropriate range
  • Secondary provides hot spots
  • UVB provided by reptile black light
98
Q

What are the water requirements of iguanas?

A
  • Needs to be large enough for the iguana to be immersed in
  • Shoud be in bowl that cannot be tipped
  • Changed regularly
  • Especially in winter, iguanas should be misted with water several times a week
99
Q

Describe the cage substrate for iguanas

A
  • Absorbent and digestible
  • Flat newspaper, sheets of brown wrapping paper, astroturf, indoor/outdoor carpet, alfalfa pellets
  • Should not use cedar shavings, gravel, crushed corn cob, cat litter, wood shavings, potting soil that contains vermiculite, pesticides, fertiliser or wetting agents
100
Q

Describe the cage enrichment that should be provided to iguanas

A
  • Branches (secure, not spiky, no sap, as thick as iguana)
  • Hisign places
  • Plants (non-poisonous and not treated with pesticides)
  • Smooth, flat bottomed rocks
101
Q

Describe the optimal environment for tortoises

A
  • Heat source (can drop temperature at some points to replicate night)
  • Humidity (mist sprays, not too damp, mosses hold moisture well, sand for drier)
  • Need source of UV light (only 14 hours a day)
102
Q

Why is it important to provide UV light for reptiles?

A
  • Needed to metabolise vitamins and minerals

- Used to produce vitamin D which is used to absorb calcium

103
Q

Describe some signs of metabolic bone disease in tortoises

A
  • Develop soft shells
  • Carapace curves upwards along edges
  • Skull develops abnormally
  • Overgrown maxilla (parrot beak appearance)
104
Q

Describe the nutrition of tortoises

A
  • No iceberg lettuce
  • Mixture of green leaves better
  • Coarse mixed grasses, hays, clover and dandelions
  • Kale in small quantities
  • Fruit in moderation
  • Some are herbivorous, others eat meat
105
Q

Describe the housing for macaws

A
  • Big enough to stretch fully horizontally and vertically
  • No sandpaper on perches
  • Perches of varying diameters
  • Cage strong enough to withstand parrot bite
  • Easily cleaned, non-toxic material
  • Enrichment in cage (not reducing room for bird)
  • Place food and water abover perches to acoid soiling and change daily
106
Q

Describe appropriate enrichment for macaws

A
  • Enjoy destroying toys so dog chews and wood to strip are more beneficial than mirrors and bells
  • Should be let out of the cage and treated as part of the family
107
Q

Describe the diet of macaws

A
  • Seeds most
  • Fruit 5%
  • Vegetables 15-30%
  • Should feed sources high in vitamin C
108
Q

Describe how macaws should be fed

A
  • Pelleted diet better than seeds, available at all times
  • Feed fresh vegetables morning and afternoon (half hour after sunrise, 5-6pm)
  • remove uneaten at next feeding
  • Offer only what bird can eat in a day
  • Foraging toys in cage for snacking and entertainment
109
Q

What are some of the benefits of feeding a pelleted diet to macaws

A
  • Balanced nutrition (precise levels of essential nutrients)
  • Realistic diet (wider variety of ingredients, more similar to wild diet)
  • Species specific nutrition
  • Fun variety
  • Less mess
  • Reduced need for supplements
  • Readily available
110
Q

What are the signs of gut stasis?

A
  • Small and/or malformed faecal pellets
  • No faecal pellets in living environment
  • Loss of appetite
  • Lethargy/hunched posture
111
Q

Describe the appropriate rabbit diet

A
  • Fresh hay should be bulk of diet, avaialble at all times
  • Some fresh vegetables (3 different vegetables each day, e.g. broccoli leaves, carrot tops, celery, dandelion leaves, lettuce, water cress)
  • Feed rabbit pellets (reduce number as gets older, high in fibre, low in protein)
  • Avoid treats high in carbs but can give in small amounts (strawberries, raspberries, bananaas, pineapple, apples - remove seeds)
112
Q

Describe water provision for rabbits

A
  • In bottles and bowls

- If not drinking much, can leave veg wet

113
Q

Describe rabbit exercise requirements

A
  • Needs pelnty of room

- Separate area that is bunny proof or supervised

114
Q

Describe ferret diets

A
  • No lactose (do not have lactase)
  • High protein diet
  • Very little carbohydrates
  • No fruit (grapes and raisins toxic)
  • Fresh water daily
  • Premium quality kitten food better than dry dog food (high protein and fat)
  • Specific ferret food best
115
Q

Describe some appropriate treats for ferrets

A
  • Commercially packaged meat-based cat or ferret treats
  • Cooked eggs
  • Cooked meat
  • Freeze-dried muscle or organ meats
  • Linoleic acid coat conditioners
116
Q

Describe guinea pig diet requirements

A
  • Vitamin C
  • Pelleted may be sueful as forage food to keep teeth ground down
  • Fresh fruit and veg (red pepper, kale, turnip greens, mustard greens, dark leafy greens, sugar snap, snow peas)
  • Water by bottle and bowl
117
Q

Describe appropriate guinea pig environments

A
  • 2 square feet per pig, larger is better, like to have company
  • Well ventilated but away from drafts
  • Bedding pelleted or using shredded paper
  • Provide darker area for hiding
  • Rest of cage light
  • Run outside on grass for exercise and to eat grass
  • Provide shade and shelter, do not put in run if cold or windy
118
Q

How should food and water be provided to guinea pigs?

A
  • Water in bottle and bowl
  • Clean bowl several times a day (play and toilet in it)
  • Food in tip proof bowl
119
Q

Describe enrichment for guinea pigs

A
  • Unpainted, untreated wood chew sticks
  • Toys to climb over
  • Not exercise wheels
  • May enjoy being handled

GI (31 decks)

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