Developmental

Question 1

Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal vs. Cross Sequential

Answer 1

The cross-sectional method compares individuals of various ages at one point in time. It measures age differences in a large sample of subjects. However, the results can be influenced by the fact that the different age groups grew up in distinctive historical periods.

the longitudinal method measures a signal individual or a group of individuals over an extended period of time. It provides in-depth information about age changes, but it is expensive, time-consuming, and has a small sample.

A cross-sequential design is a research method that combines both a longitudinal design and a cross-sectional design. It aims to correct for some of the problems inherent in the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.

Question 2

Nature vs. Nurture: genes, maturation, environment

Answer 2

Development is influenced by many factors- genetic and environmental influences, and normative and non-normative influences.

Proponents of modern nature position emphasize the role of maturation, a sequence of genetically programmed processes of growth and development that occur over time. They also point to the importance of critical periods in maturation. A critical period is a specific time of great sensitivity to age-related learning that shapes the capacity for future cognitive developments.

Question 3

Continuity vs. Stage Theories of Development, Quantity vs. Quality

Answer 3

Qualitative change- stage theorists proposed that development is discontinuous and that periods of little change alternate with periods of abrupt and rapid change. They assert that differences between adults and children are qualitative rant that quantitative.

Quantitative change- continuity proponents argue that development is continuous with new abilities, skills, and knowledge developing gradually and relatively uniformly over time.

Question 4

Genotype vs. Phenotype

Answer 4

The genotype is the genetic makeup of the person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics.

The phenotype is the observable characteristics of the person (e.g. height, eye color, hair texture)

Question 5

X-linked disorders

Answer 5

Klinfelter’s Syndrome occurs only in men and results from an extra X chromosome (XXY). The man tends to be taller, less intelligent, and abnormal development of secondary sex characteristics (partial breast development, small testicles, high pitched voice) and unable to have children.

Turner’s Syndrome (think of Tina Turner who is a female). This only occurs in women and results from a missing X chromosome (XO). The woman generally has normal intelligence, but have abnormal development of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. no menstruation, no ovulation)

Question 6

Down Syndrome vs PKU (Phenylketonuria)

Answer 6

Down syndrome, or trisomy 21, involves 3 chromosomes on chromosome 21. The person has a cognitive disability, a broad skull, slanted eyes, physical deformities, and reduced activities.

PKU is an inherited autosomal recessive disorder caused by a defective gene that affects metabolism, such that the protein phenylalanine cannot be metabolized. PKU can result in severe mental deficiency, and if detected early babies are put on a special diet for life.

Question 7

Reflexes- newborns are equipped with a variety of behavioral reflexes that help them survive.

Answer 7

Moro reflex involves the baby extending the legs, arms, and fingers, and arching the back in response to being startled.

Rooting reflex occurs when the baby turns its head, opening the mouth, and beginning sucking movements in response to the baby’s check being stroked with a finger or nipple.

Babinski reflex occurs when the babu spreads out its toes and twisting the foot when the sole of the baby’s foot is stroked.

Grasp reflex occurs when the baby makes a firm fist around an object that is placed in the hand.

Question 8

Vygotsky and scaffolding

Answer 8

According to Vygotsky, cognitive development results from social interaction. His social development theory has led to instructional strategies of scaffolding and reciprocal teaching. In scaffolding, the teachers adjust their level of help based on the child’s performance.

Reciprocal teaching involves a dialogue between the teacher and students.

Question 9

Primary vs. Secondary aging

Answer 9

Primary aging is inevitable changes in physical and mental processes. Explanations for primary aging include the programmed theories, which hold that aging is genetically controlled, and the wear-and-tear theory holds that daily stressors wear out the body’s cells.

Secondary aging results from disease, disuse, and neglect of the body.

Question 10

Holophrasic vs. Telegraphic speech

Answer 10

Holophrasic speech occurs between 12- 18 months and the baby uses a single word or even a syllable to express a complete thought. By 15 months the toddler uses 10 different words and by 18 months has about 50 words in their vocabulary.

Telegraphic speech occurs between 18-24 months and the toddler puts two words together to express a thought. By 24 months, the toddler has 200 words.

Question 11

Chomsky vs. Whorf theories of language development

Answer 11

Chomsky embraces the nativist view. He hypothesized that children are born with an innate language acquisition device (LAD), a pre-wiring for language, so they require only minimal exposure to adult language in order to develop speech.

Whorf hypothesis that speakers of different languages actually think differently because of the structure of their languages; in other words, language influences how we think.

Question 12

Code-switching

Answer 12

the practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language in conversation. Speakers of more than one language, sometimes use elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other.

Question 13

Effects of Head Start

Answer 13

Is a primary prevention program and it has been effective in improving the academic, social-emotional, and, physical development of low-income children.

Question 14

Assimilation vs. Accommodation

Answer 14

Assimilation is the process of taking in a new experience and incorporating it into existing cognitive structures. For example, when a child sees an eagle for the first time and calls it a bird. When she sees an airplane and also calls it a “bird”, but makes a mistake, because she is trying to fit new information into a previous understanding.

Accommodation involves adjusting the reality demands by reorganizing or modifying the existing cognitive structures or schema. When the child creates a new schema for eagles or planes, accommodation is occurring.

Question 15

Decalage

Answer 15

According to Piaget, there is decalage or unevenness within a given child’s cognitive development

Question 16

Piaget 4 stages of Cognitive Development

Answer 16

1. Sensorimotor-birth to 2 years- the infant learns through sensory observation and gains control of their motor functions through activity, exploration, and manipulation of the environment.
   a. Object permanence- the understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard or touched. Occurs between 3-4 months.

b. Symbolic representation- the ability to form internal images or mental reprsensations of objects. As language develops this helps the child develop the “mind’s eye” and develop object permanence.
2. Preoperational stage occurs between ages 2-7 and is a pre-logical stage.

a. Intuitive thinking- thinking and reasoning are intuitive, children are unable to think logically and seductively
b. Egocentrism- children are unable to take the perspective of other people
c. Phenomenalistic causality- children employ a type of magical thinking in which events that occur together are thought to cause one another.
d. Animism- children give physical objects psychological attributes such as feelings or intentions.
e. Irreversibility- the inability to mentally undo something
f. Centration- is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a problem at a time.

3. Concrete Operational Stage- 7 - 11 years old- a child can operate and act on real or imagined concrete objects.
   a. Operational thought-child is able to attend to a wide array of information and now can use logical thought processes, and serialize, or place objects in order according to 1 or more attributes (weight, size, color, etc.).
   b. Conservation-the ability to recognize that even though shape and form might change, the object sill conserves other characteristics.
4. Formal Operational stage- 11- end of adolescence- the ability to apply operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects and apply deductive reasoning (“if…then statements”).
   a. Metacognition- the ability to think about thinking and exploring personal values and compare their with others

Question 17

IQ concordance rates

Answer 17

Idetical twins = .75
Siblings reared togehter = .5
Siblings reared apart = .2f
One parent and a child = .40-.45

Question 18

Crystallized vs. Fluid Intelligence and aging

Answer 18

Crystallized intelligence refers to practiced and overlearned skills that are predominantly verbal. Crystallized intelligence appears to remain intact with aging, and may even improve overall.

Fluid intelligence refers to capacities for problem-solving in novel situations. Fluid intelligence is believed to peak in adolescence and thereafter gradually declines.

Question 19

Mahler: separation- individuation

Answer 19

Separation is the process of being a discrete physical entity by physically distancing.

Individuation is the process of becoming a psychologically independent person which involves maturation of independent ego functions.

Question 20

Separation Anxiety vs. Stranger Anxiety

Answer 20

Separation anxiety occurs between 10- 16 months. As the child is able to physically separate him/herself from their mother they become stressed, afraid, or worried

Stranger anxiety occurs between 5- 10 months, the child is able to distinguish between self and other objects, so that the child becomes increasingly aware of the unfamiliar and thus displays stressed, afraid, or worried

Question 21

Bowlby: protest, despair, detachment

Answer 21

John Bowlby formulated attachment theory and proposed that attachment is crucial to healthy development. He also indicated that newborns are biologically equipped with both verbal and nonverbal behaviors that function to elicit instinctive nurturing responses from the caretaker.

a. Protest- when separated initially, the child protests by crying, calling out, and searching for the lost person.
b. Despair- as the period of separation continues, the child shows signs of feeling hopeless that the mover will ever return.
c. Detachment- the last step- the child emotionally separates the self from the mother. the child responds in an indifferent manner when the mother returns.

Question 22

Analytic depression

Answer 22

Rene Spitz coined the term to describe the syndrome of weepiness, withdrawal, insomnia, a decline of health, and affect found in babies deprived of maternal attention between 6 and 8 months of age.

Question 23

imprinting- certain stimuli are capable of eliciting innate behavior patterns during a critical period of the animal’s development.

Answer 23

Konrad Lorenz found that goslings demonstrate attachment behavior patterns that are presumed to be instinctual. He found that goslings that had imprinted on him between 12 and 17 hours after birth continued to follow him even when other geese later because available as models.

Question 24

Stranger Situation and Attachment Mary Ainsworth

Answer 24

a. Secure attachment- about 65% of all babies are warm and responsive. When exposed to a stranger, these infants seek closeness and contact with the mother, show moderate distress upon separation, and greet the mother with enthusiasm when she returns.
b. Avoidant attachment0 about 20% of babies do not seek closeness and contact with the mother, treat the mother like a stranger, rarely cry when she leaves the room,n and ignore her on her return. They may even prefer the stranger over the mother. The mother is either aloof and distant or intrusive and overstimulating.
c. Ambivalent (resistant) attachment- about 10% of babies are clingy and become upset when the mother leaves the room. When the mother returns the babies are happy and reestablish contact, but show their ambivalence by then resisting the mother’s comforting behaviors. The child may cry, kick, or squirm to get away. Ambivalent babies do little exploring and appear angry toward both the mother and the stranger. These mothers tend to be inconsistent and insensitive.
d. Disorganized-disoriented attachment-infants exhibit no clear strategy in dealing with the mother. They may be unresponsive when the mother returns; at times they may avoid and resist the mother, at other times they may freeze and stop moving when the mother comes near. These children exhibit fear and confusion toward their mothers. This child shows the least secure pattern of attachment and is commonly associated with abuse of the infant or unresolved abuse issues of the mother.

Question 25

Parenting Styles

Answer 25

1. Authoritarian parents- expect unquestioned obedience, and are demanding, controlling, threatening, and punishing. The children are generally moody, irritable, discontented, withdrawn, distrustful, and aggressive. These children are known as “conflicted-irritable”
2. Permissive parents- value self-expression and self-regulation. The parent is either permissive-indifferent (sets few limits, provides little monitoring, and generally detached and uninvolved) or permissive indulgent ( are loving and emotionally available, yet set few limits, demands, or controls). Permissive-indifferent parents have children with poor self-control, demanding, minimally compliant, and have poor social skills. Permissive-indulgent parents have children that are impulsive, immature, and out of control. This parenting style leads to children called “impulsive-aggressive”.
3. Authoritative parents - are caring and emotionally available, yet firm, fair, and reasonable. They set appropriate limits, and provide structure and reasonable expectations. Their children are usually competent, confident, independent, cooperative, and at ease in social situations. This parenting style leads to children called “energetic-friendly-self-reliant”.

Question 26

Stages of Gender Role Development

Answer 26

a, Gender roles refer to the societal expectations for appropriate male or female behaviors. Gender roles begin to develop virtually from birth and develop throughout life.

b. Gender identity refers to the individual’s perception of him or herself as male or female. Gender identity is usually achieved by the age of three years (e.g. a 3-year old boy knows that he is a boy).
c. Gender constancy describes the attainment of the recognition that gender does not change with dress or behavior and is attained by the age of five or six.

Question 27

5 stages of grief and dying

Answer 27

Elizabeth Kubler-Ross proposed that most people go through s stages when facing their own death: denial or disbelief, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance (DABDA)

Question 28

Health Belief Model

Answer 28

The health belief model focuses on how perceptions of vulnerability and beliefs about illness influence health behavior. It is multicausal and proposes that health behavior results from the joint influences of psychosocial factors (demographic variables, peer pressure), perceived susceptibility to disease, the perceived seriousness of the disease, and the perceived benefits of preventative action versus perceived barriers to preventative action.

Question 29

Sex and Aging

Answer 29

Sex drive does not tend to diminish with age, and the likelihood of sexual activity in the later years is closely related to the frequency of sexual activity during their younger years. Healthy men engage in sex in the 70’s to 80’s and women are able physiologically able to be sexually active as long as they live. For women, the lack of an available partner is the typical reason for the lack of sexual activity.

Question 30

Most common DSM diagnosis in the elderly

Answer 30

Neurocognitive disorders including delirium and Alzheimer’s disease.

Question 31

Teratogens and fetal alcohol syndrome

Answer 31

Teratogens are agents (medications, viruses, drugs, or radiation that the embryo is exposed to during the first 8- 12 weeks and these agents cause birth defects.

Excessive alcohol use during pregnancy can result in fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS). FAS is characterized by delayed growth, physical deformities, delayed motor development, decreased IQ, learning disabilities, short attention span, restlessness, irritability, and hyperactivity.

Question 32

Abortion effects

Answer 32

Cocaine use during pregnancy has been associated with an increase risk of spontaneous abortion. Cocaine use also causes prematurity, low birth weight, neurological problems, smaller head circumference. In later years, these children have problems with organization, language skills, and emotional attachment.

Question 33

Nicotine use pregnancy

Answer 33

Nicotine use during pregnancy can result in infant health and low birth weight. School-age children experience poor attention spans, hyperactivity, lower IQ, and perceptual-motor problems.

Question 34

Temperament

Answer 34

1. Easy temperament- 40% of all babies are regularly described as adaptable, mildly intense style that is positive and responsive.
2. Difficult temperament- 10% of all babies are described as moody, easily frustrated, tense, and overact to most situations.
3. Slow-to-warn-up infants- about 15 % of all babies are mild in responding, are somewhat shy and withdrawn, and need time to adjust to new experiences of people

Question 35

Piaget’s Moral Development

Answer 35

Piaget believed that moral development is linked to cognitive development. He asserted the children make sounder moral judgments when they possess the cognitive ability of being able to see things from more than one perspective. He proposed 2 stages:

1. heteronomous morality (5 -10 years old)- young egocentric children think rigidly about morality; they believe rules are decided upon by authority figures, cannot be changes, must be followed without question, and that any offense deserves punishment (unless they are the offenders).
2. Autonomous morality (10+ years)- children’s thinking becomes flexible; they can consider more thtn1 aspect of the situation, and can consider the intent behind the behavior. Children come to realize that rules are flexible, are agreed upon by others, and can be changed if necessary.

Question 36

Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning

Answer 36

Like Piaget, Kohlberg asserted that how people think about moral issues reflects cognitive development. He has 3 general stages with 2 substages:

1. Preconvential Morality (4-10 years old)- emphasized compliance with rules to avoid punishment and get rewards

a. Stage 1- Punishment-Obedience Orientation- focus on avoiding punishment
b. Stage 2- Instrumental Hedonism- involving obedience to rules with the hope that good deeds will be rewarded

2. Conventional Morality- (after age 10)- emphasizes conforming to rules to get approval from others.
   c. Stage 3- Good Boy/Good Girl Orientation- concerned about gaining approval through obedience
   d. Stage 4- Law and Order Orientation- focus on doing one’s duty and maintaining social order
3. Postconventional morality aka (morality of autonomous moral principles)- (begins by age 13, but may never be reached) - involves the recognition that there are sometimes conflicts between moral or socially accepted standards. The person makes moral decisions based on what is right, fair, or just.
   e. Stage 5- morality of Contract, Individual Rights, and Democratically Accepted Laws- emphasizes valuing the will of the majority and the welfare of society
   f. Morality of Individual Principles of Conscience- what the individual believes is right, regardless of legal restrictions or opinions of others. People in this stage act in accordance with internalized standards.

Question 37

Carol Gilligan’s Moral Development for females

Answer 37

Gilligan criticized Kohlberg’s theory for giving a higher moral place to traditional male values (e.g. justice and fairness) than traditional female values (e.g. compassion and caring).

1. Justice perspective -suggest that males generally prefer the justice perspective, which emphasizes fairness
2. Caring perspective-the central moral dilemma faced by women is the conflict between their own needs and those of others. Women think more about their responsibilities to specific people.

Question 38

Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Approach to development

Answer 38

microsystem > mesosystem > exosystem > macrosystem > chronosystem

1. The microsystem-the everyday environment the person encounters (home, school, work, or neighborhood) and it consist of 2-way interactions/ relationships with parents, siblings, teacher, friends
2. The mesosystem is the interaction or links between various microsystems (e.g. home and school, or work and friends)
3. The ecosystem describes the relationship between 2 or more settings, at least 1 of which does not contain the person, but indirectly affects him or her. For example, the child is not directly involved in the parent’s workplace , but the workplace affects the parent and their relationship with the child.
4. The macrosystem include the influences of culture, religion, the economy, and political systems
5. The chronosystem addresses the role of the passage of time in a person’s life. It includes changes that take place in the family (e.g. a birth or death, a move, etc.) as well as changes in the larger environment (e.g. economic growth, war, a pandemic, etc.).

Question 39

Freud vs. Erikson Personality Development

Answer 39

Age Freud Erickson’s Psychosocial Crisis Erickson’s Strength
1st yr Oral trust vs. mistrust hope
1 - 3 Anal autonomy vs. shame & doubt will
3 - 5 Phallic initiative vs. guilt purpose
6 - 12 Latency industry vs. inferiorty competency
12 - 18 Genital identity vs. role confusion fidelity
18 - 35 intimacy vs. isolation love
35 - 60 generativity vs. stagnation care
60+ integrity vs. despair wisdom