Developmental Flashcards
Cross-Sectional vs. Longitudinal vs. Cross Sequential
The cross-sectional method compares individuals of various ages at one point in time. It measures age differences in a large sample of subjects. However, the results can be influenced by the fact that the different age groups grew up in distinctive historical periods.
the longitudinal method measures a signal individual or a group of individuals over an extended period of time. It provides in-depth information about age changes, but it is expensive, time-consuming, and has a small sample.
A cross-sequential design is a research method that combines both a longitudinal design and a cross-sectional design. It aims to correct for some of the problems inherent in the cross-sectional and longitudinal designs.
Nature vs. Nurture: genes, maturation, environment
Development is influenced by many factors- genetic and environmental influences, and normative and non-normative influences.
Proponents of modern nature position emphasize the role of maturation, a sequence of genetically programmed processes of growth and development that occur over time. They also point to the importance of critical periods in maturation. A critical period is a specific time of great sensitivity to age-related learning that shapes the capacity for future cognitive developments.
Continuity vs. Stage Theories of Development, Quantity vs. Quality
Qualitative change- stage theorists proposed that development is discontinuous and that periods of little change alternate with periods of abrupt and rapid change. They assert that differences between adults and children are qualitative rant that quantitative.
Quantitative change- continuity proponents argue that development is continuous with new abilities, skills, and knowledge developing gradually and relatively uniformly over time.
Genotype vs. Phenotype
The genotype is the genetic makeup of the person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics.
The phenotype is the observable characteristics of the person (e.g. height, eye color, hair texture)
X-linked disorders
Klinfelter’s Syndrome occurs only in men and results from an extra X chromosome (XXY). The man tends to be taller, less intelligent, and abnormal development of secondary sex characteristics (partial breast development, small testicles, high pitched voice) and unable to have children.
Turner’s Syndrome (think of Tina Turner who is a female). This only occurs in women and results from a missing X chromosome (XO). The woman generally has normal intelligence, but have abnormal development of secondary sexual characteristics (e.g. no menstruation, no ovulation)
Down Syndrome vs PKU (Phenylketonuria)
Down syndrome, or trisomy 21, involves 3 chromosomes on chromosome 21. The person has a cognitive disability, a broad skull, slanted eyes, physical deformities, and reduced activities.
PKU is an inherited autosomal recessive disorder caused by a defective gene that affects metabolism, such that the protein phenylalanine cannot be metabolized. PKU can result in severe mental deficiency, and if detected early babies are put on a special diet for life.
Reflexes- newborns are equipped with a variety of behavioral reflexes that help them survive.
Moro reflex involves the baby extending the legs, arms, and fingers, and arching the back in response to being startled.
Rooting reflex occurs when the baby turns its head, opening the mouth, and beginning sucking movements in response to the baby’s check being stroked with a finger or nipple.
Babinski reflex occurs when the babu spreads out its toes and twisting the foot when the sole of the baby’s foot is stroked.
Grasp reflex occurs when the baby makes a firm fist around an object that is placed in the hand.
Vygotsky and scaffolding
According to Vygotsky, cognitive development results from social interaction. His social development theory has led to instructional strategies of scaffolding and reciprocal teaching. In scaffolding, the teachers adjust their level of help based on the child’s performance.
Reciprocal teaching involves a dialogue between the teacher and students.
Primary vs. Secondary aging
Primary aging is inevitable changes in physical and mental processes. Explanations for primary aging include the programmed theories, which hold that aging is genetically controlled, and the wear-and-tear theory holds that daily stressors wear out the body’s cells.
Secondary aging results from disease, disuse, and neglect of the body.
Holophrasic vs. Telegraphic speech
Holophrasic speech occurs between 12- 18 months and the baby uses a single word or even a syllable to express a complete thought. By 15 months the toddler uses 10 different words and by 18 months has about 50 words in their vocabulary.
Telegraphic speech occurs between 18-24 months and the toddler puts two words together to express a thought. By 24 months, the toddler has 200 words.
Chomsky vs. Whorf theories of language development
Chomsky embraces the nativist view. He hypothesized that children are born with an innate language acquisition device (LAD), a pre-wiring for language, so they require only minimal exposure to adult language in order to develop speech.
Whorf hypothesis that speakers of different languages actually think differently because of the structure of their languages; in other words, language influences how we think.
Code-switching
the practice of alternating between two or more languages or varieties of language in conversation. Speakers of more than one language, sometimes use elements of multiple languages when conversing with each other.
Effects of Head Start
Is a primary prevention program and it has been effective in improving the academic, social-emotional, and, physical development of low-income children.
Assimilation vs. Accommodation
Assimilation is the process of taking in a new experience and incorporating it into existing cognitive structures. For example, when a child sees an eagle for the first time and calls it a bird. When she sees an airplane and also calls it a “bird”, but makes a mistake, because she is trying to fit new information into a previous understanding.
Accommodation involves adjusting the reality demands by reorganizing or modifying the existing cognitive structures or schema. When the child creates a new schema for eagles or planes, accommodation is occurring.
Decalage
According to Piaget, there is decalage or unevenness within a given child’s cognitive development
Piaget 4 stages of Cognitive Development
- Sensorimotor-birth to 2 years- the infant learns through sensory observation and gains control of their motor functions through activity, exploration, and manipulation of the environment.
a. Object permanence- the understanding that objects and people continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard or touched. Occurs between 3-4 months.
b. Symbolic representation- the ability to form internal images or mental reprsensations of objects. As language develops this helps the child develop the “mind’s eye” and develop object permanence.
2. Preoperational stage occurs between ages 2-7 and is a pre-logical stage.
a. Intuitive thinking- thinking and reasoning are intuitive, children are unable to think logically and seductively
b. Egocentrism- children are unable to take the perspective of other people
c. Phenomenalistic causality- children employ a type of magical thinking in which events that occur together are thought to cause one another.
d. Animism- children give physical objects psychological attributes such as feelings or intentions.
e. Irreversibility- the inability to mentally undo something
f. Centration- is the tendency to focus on one aspect of a problem at a time.
- Concrete Operational Stage- 7 - 11 years old- a child can operate and act on real or imagined concrete objects.
a. Operational thought-child is able to attend to a wide array of information and now can use logical thought processes, and serialize, or place objects in order according to 1 or more attributes (weight, size, color, etc.).
b. Conservation-the ability to recognize that even though shape and form might change, the object sill conserves other characteristics. - Formal Operational stage- 11- end of adolescence- the ability to apply operations to abstract concepts in addition to concrete objects and apply deductive reasoning (“if…then statements”).
a. Metacognition- the ability to think about thinking and exploring personal values and compare their with others
IQ concordance rates
Idetical twins = .75
Siblings reared togehter = .5
Siblings reared apart = .2f
One parent and a child = .40-.45
Crystallized vs. Fluid Intelligence and aging
Crystallized intelligence refers to practiced and overlearned skills that are predominantly verbal. Crystallized intelligence appears to remain intact with aging, and may even improve overall.
Fluid intelligence refers to capacities for problem-solving in novel situations. Fluid intelligence is believed to peak in adolescence and thereafter gradually declines.
Mahler: separation- individuation
Separation is the process of being a discrete physical entity by physically distancing.
Individuation is the process of becoming a psychologically independent person which involves maturation of independent ego functions.
Separation Anxiety vs. Stranger Anxiety
Separation anxiety occurs between 10- 16 months. As the child is able to physically separate him/herself from their mother they become stressed, afraid, or worried
Stranger anxiety occurs between 5- 10 months, the child is able to distinguish between self and other objects, so that the child becomes increasingly aware of the unfamiliar and thus displays stressed, afraid, or worried
Bowlby: protest, despair, detachment
John Bowlby formulated attachment theory and proposed that attachment is crucial to healthy development. He also indicated that newborns are biologically equipped with both verbal and nonverbal behaviors that function to elicit instinctive nurturing responses from the caretaker.
a. Protest- when separated initially, the child protests by crying, calling out, and searching for the lost person.
b. Despair- as the period of separation continues, the child shows signs of feeling hopeless that the mover will ever return.
c. Detachment- the last step- the child emotionally separates the self from the mother. the child responds in an indifferent manner when the mother returns.
Analytic depression
Rene Spitz coined the term to describe the syndrome of weepiness, withdrawal, insomnia, a decline of health, and affect found in babies deprived of maternal attention between 6 and 8 months of age.
imprinting- certain stimuli are capable of eliciting innate behavior patterns during a critical period of the animal’s development.
Konrad Lorenz found that goslings demonstrate attachment behavior patterns that are presumed to be instinctual. He found that goslings that had imprinted on him between 12 and 17 hours after birth continued to follow him even when other geese later because available as models.
Stranger Situation and Attachment Mary Ainsworth
a. Secure attachment- about 65% of all babies are warm and responsive. When exposed to a stranger, these infants seek closeness and contact with the mother, show moderate distress upon separation, and greet the mother with enthusiasm when she returns.
b. Avoidant attachment0 about 20% of babies do not seek closeness and contact with the mother, treat the mother like a stranger, rarely cry when she leaves the room,n and ignore her on her return. They may even prefer the stranger over the mother. The mother is either aloof and distant or intrusive and overstimulating.
c. Ambivalent (resistant) attachment- about 10% of babies are clingy and become upset when the mother leaves the room. When the mother returns the babies are happy and reestablish contact, but show their ambivalence by then resisting the mother’s comforting behaviors. The child may cry, kick, or squirm to get away. Ambivalent babies do little exploring and appear angry toward both the mother and the stranger. These mothers tend to be inconsistent and insensitive.
d. Disorganized-disoriented attachment-infants exhibit no clear strategy in dealing with the mother. They may be unresponsive when the mother returns; at times they may avoid and resist the mother, at other times they may freeze and stop moving when the mother comes near. These children exhibit fear and confusion toward their mothers. This child shows the least secure pattern of attachment and is commonly associated with abuse of the infant or unresolved abuse issues of the mother.
