Democracy and Participation Flashcards
1
Q
What is direct democracy?
A
All individuals express their opinions themselves and not through representatives acting on their behalf. An example of direct democracy is a referendum
2
Q
What is representative democracy?
A
A form of democracy in which an individual selects a person (or political party) to act on their behalf to exercise political choice. This is the usual form of democracy in the modern world.
3
Q
What are the features of direct democracy?
A
- Individuals express opinions themselves
- Not elective
- Citizens more active in decision-making
4
Q
What are the key features of a representative democracy?
A
- Citizens elect representatives to make decisions on their behalf
- All adult citizens have the right to vote for representatives
- Elections for representatives are free and fair
- Citizens pass their authority to their representatives
5
Q
What are the advantages and disadvantages of direct democracy?
A
Advantages:
- Gives equal weight to all votes, unlike a representative system where the varying sizes of constituencies means that votes do not all have equal value
- Encourages popular participation in politics by expecting people to take their duties as citizens seriously
- Removes the need for trusted representatives, as people can take responsibility for their own decisions
- Develops a sense of community and encourages genuine debate
Disadvantages:
- Impractical in a large heavily populated modern state where decision making is complicated
- Many people will not want to - or feel qualified to - take part in decision-making, so political activists decide what happens
- Open to manipulation by the cleverest and most articulate speakers, who will persuade people to support their viewpoint
- Will of the majority is not mediated by parliamentary institutions, so minority viewpoints are disregarded
6
Q
What are the advantages and disadvantages of representative democracy?
A
Advantages:
- The only practical system in a large modern state, where issues are complex and often need rapid response (e.g. the deployment of troops)
- Politicians form parties, bringing coherence and giving people a real choice or representative. Pressure groups form to represent different interests, promoting debate and encouraging pluralist democracy
- Reduces chances of minority rights being overridden by ‘tyranny of the majority’
- Elections allow people to hold representatives to account
- Politicians are (in theory) better informed than the average citizen about the any issues on which they must take a view
Disadvantages:
- May lead to reduced participation as people choose to hand responsibility to politicians
- Parties and pressure groups are often run by elites pursuing their own agendas, not truly representing the people
- Minorities may still find themselves underrepresented as politicians are more likely to follow the views of the majority to secure election
- Politicians are skilful in avoiding accountability, especially as general elections are 5 years apart
- Politicians may be corrupt and incompetent, may betray election promises or put loyalty to their party before responsibility to the electorate.
7
Q
What is a pluralist democracy?
A
A type of democracy in which a government makes decisions as a result of the interplay of various ideas and contrasting arguments from competing groups and organisations
8
Q
What are the instances where direct democracy can be used within a representative system?
A
- National referendums: a referendum is a direct vote on a single issue, usually requiring a response to a straight yes/no question. The UK has had 3; On membership of the European Economic Community (which later became the EU) in 1975 and 2016, and whether to change the system of voting for Westminster in 2011
- The 2015 Recall of MPs Act: This allows a petition to be triggered if an MP is sentenced to be imprisoned or is suspended from the HoC for more than 21 days. If 10% of eligible voters in the constituency sign the petition, a by-election is called. Direct democracy is thus used to hold representatives to account
9
Q
What are the positive democratic features of the UK political system?
A
- Devolved governments, and for elected Mayors in London and other English cities, enabling more decisions to be taken closer to local people
- Free and fair elections, largely free or corruption and intimidation, in recent years supplemented by opportunities to vote in referendums
- Wide range of political parties and pressure groups to which people may belong
- Independent judiciary, separate from the other branches of government, that upholds the rule of law and protects a wide range of personal freedoms
- Free media that challenges government policy and exposes the misdeeds of politicians
10
Q
What is legitimacy?
A
The legal right to exercise power, for example a governments right to rule following an election
11
Q
What is a democratic deficit?
A
A perceived deficiency in the way a particular democratic body works, especially in terms of accountability and control over policy-making
12
Q
In what respects can the UK political system be seen as undemocratic?
A
- Under-representation of minority viewpoints due to the voting system; HoC is elected by FPTP, which produces a mismatch between the votes cast for UK political parties and the seats that each party wins in parliaments
- HoL lacks democratic legitimacy; it is unelected, and mainly appointed, with the greater part of its membership having been chosen by former PMs. However some non-party ‘crossbench’ peers nominated since 2000 by an independent HoL Appointments Commission, ensuring that a number of different professions and fields of experience are present in the upper house
- Lack of protections for citizens’ rights; the ECHR arguable provides inadequate guarantees for the rights of citizens in their relationship with the state. Governments can ‘derogate from’ articles of the HRA, officially stating that parts of the act no longer have legal authority in certain situations
- Control of sections of the media by wealth, unaccountable business interests; e.g. the Murdoch groups hs owned a number of British newspapers simultaneously
13
Q
What is meant by a ‘participation crisis’?
A
A lack of engagement with the political system, for example where a large number of people choose not to vote, join a political party or stand for office
14
Q
What are the measures of political participation?
A
Voter turnout
Party membership
15
Q
Why is falling voter turnout important?
A
It means that governments are elected on a reduced share of the popular vote, thus calling the strength of their mandate into question
16
Q
Average election turnout data
A
- average turnout 1945-97 was 76%
- 2001 was lowest turnout since WW1 at 59.4%
- 2017 roughly 65%
-2024 60%
17
Q
What is voter turnout like in non-general elections?
A
- Turnout is even lower in ‘second order’ elections (e.g. those for the devolved bodies)
- Average turnout for May 2016 local elections was 33.8% - maybe because voters see these bodies as less powerful and less likely to make a difference to their everyday life
- Turnout for parliamentary elections usually low - people not helping to choose a government
- In 2017 Stoke-on-Trent by-election only 38.2% of the electorate voted
18
Q
What percentage of the electorate belongs to one of the 3 main UK-wide parties?
A
1.6%, whereas it was 3.8% in 1986
19
Q
Changes in party membership figures
A
- Conservatives had just under 150,000 members in 2016, estimated 400,000 in mid 90s, in 2025 131,000
- Labour membership increased in the run up to 1997 (400,000), then fell when they were in government to around 190,000. Increased to 515,000 when Corbin became leader. Now at 309,000
- Lib Dems had about 70,000 in early 2000s, fell to 49,000 in coalition, and rose to 82,000 in 2017. Now at 90,000
Membership of smaller parties also increase:
- SNP from 25,000 in 2013 to 120,000 in 2016, 72,000 in 2023
- Greens from 13,800 in 2013 to 55,000 in 2016, 54,000 2021
- UKIP from 32,400 in 2013 to 39,000 in 2016 - Reform over 200,000 in 2025
20
Q
Is there a participation crisis?
A
- Now other ways that people are getting involved in politics - membership of pressure groups has been increasing
- Last few decades have seen well attended demonstrations; on Brexit, Iraq war, fuel prices, tuition fees
- People may be turning to new methods of expression because they feel conventional politics have let them down
- Society has become more consumerist; people make up their minds more on an individual basis and are used to making choices between different options
- Social media has enabled people to exchange political views and participate in online campaigns on particular issues, without engaging in the real world e.g. support for e-petitions such as in 2007 against proposals for road-charging was signed by 1.8 million
- Rise of new forms of political engagement may be seen as positive, but still its a cause for concern that so many are uninvolved in traditional politics
21
Q
What are some explanations for an increasing lack of traditional political engagement?
A
- Political apathy: a lack of interest or awareness of contemporary events and political issues that affect society
- People are generally contented and see no need to push for political change; may help to account for low turnout in 2001 and 2005, but doesn’t explain the low turnout in 2010
- Levels of participation may depend on the types of issues at stake; turnout for Scottish independence referendum was 84.6%, Brexit referendum turnout was 72.2% - suggests that when there are critical issues affecting the way the country is governed people will still express a view
- Negative public perception (2009 parliamentary expenses scandal) of politicians in recent decades helps explain declining turnout
22
Q
Case study: 2009 parliamentary expenses scandal
A
In 2009 the Telegraph published evidence of widespread abuse of the system that allowed MPs to claim expenses for living costs. The affair dragged in MPs from across the political spectrum, leading to a number of apologies, forced repayment and decisions not to contest seats at the next election. Five former MPs and two members of the HoL were sentenced to prison terms. Although steps have been taken to regulate the expenses system, this doesn’t seem to have fundamentally altered popular perceptions. A 2015 survey by Ipsos MORI found that politicians were the profession least trusted by the public.
23
Q
What proposals have been suggested to increase turnout at elections?
A
- Changing the dar for elections from Thursday to weekends
- Allowing people to vote anywhere in their constituency rather than insisting on attendances at a particular polling station
- Allowing voting to take place over several days
- Make voting compulsory
- Reduce voting age to 16 (was done in the Scottish independence referendum)
- Encourage wider use of postal voting and allow electronic voting
24
Q
Arguments for and against voting becoming compulsory
A
For:
- Voting is a social duty as well as a right; people should be engaged in the process that affects their lives
- It would produce a parliament that is more representative of the population as a whole
- Politicians would have to run better quality campaigns and governments would have to frame their policies with the whole electorate in mind
- Voters are not obliged to vote for one of the candidates if they conscientiously cannot; it would still be legal to spoil one’s ballot paper, or a ‘none of the above’ box could be provided on the paper
Against:
- In a preferential voting system, where voters number candidates in order, compulsory voting might lead to participants simply placing candidates in rank order
- It is undemocratic to force people to take part in something that should be a matter of choice
- It would not stop politicians focusing their campaigning on marginal seats and neglecting safe seats where the outcome is predictable
- Compulsory voting does not address the deeper reasons why people decide not to vote
25
What categories of people are excluded from participating in parliamentary elections?
- People under the age of 18
- EU citizens, but they can vote in local elections
- Members of the HoL
- Prisoners
- Those convicted of a corrupt or illegal electoral practice, who are barred for 5 years
- People who are compulsorily detained in a psychiatric hospital
26
Key milestones in the widening of the franchise
- The Great Reform Act of 1832
- 1867 Borough householders enfranchised
- 1884 Rural householders put on the same footing as borough ones
- 1918 All men over 21 and all women over 30 can vote
- 1928 voting age for men and women equalised at 21
- 1948 end of plural voting
- 1969 voting age lowered to 18
27
How many great reform acts were there, and who was responsible for them
Gladstone responsible for 3, Disraeli responsible for 1
28
How much did the electorate increase by in 1867?
Rises from 1-2 million, 13% of adult population
29
How many people could vote in 1884?
Electorate over 5 million - 25% of adult population
30
What percentage of adults could vote in 1918?
75%
31
What did the Great Reform Act of 1832 do?
- Abolished separate representation of the most underpopulated 'rotten boroughs' and created seats for urban areas
- Granted the vote to new groups of people in the counties including tenant farmers and smaller property holders
- created a standard qualification for franchise in the boroughs; now applied to all male householders living in properties who paid a yearly rent of £10 or more (i.e. the middle class)
- Increased electorate from 400,000 to roughly 650,000 - 5% of adult population
32
What are some examples of unfairness in early UK democracy?
- There were 2 types of constituencies: counties and boroughs. In counties only those who owned freehold property worth at least 40 shillings could vote. In some boroughs all freemen could vote, but in some it depended on property ownership
- The distribution of seats had not kept pace with economic growth and population movement; tiny boroughs retained the right to return MPs but emerging industrial towns did not acquire representation
- Rotten boroughs
- Plural voting allowed wealthy men who owned property in more than 1 constituency to have more than 1 vote
- Women were excluded
33
Case study of current moves to extend the franchise: votes at 16
16 and 17 year olds were allowed to vote in the Scottish independence referendum, and are allowed to vote for the Scottish Parliament
Arguments for votes at 16:
- Have to have citizenship lessons at school, so know about politics and can take part in political debate - also already a youth parliament
- Have other legal rights e.g. right to leave school, start work, join armed forces, so why not the right to vote
- If given the vote, more would participate and be likely to participate for life - 3/4 of 16 and 17 year olds voted in the Scottish referendum
- Having a vote gives a say in issues that mean a lot e.g. tuition fees, by having the vote it makes sure that parties think about young people's futures too
Arguments against:
- Lack necessary life experience and maturity - relatively few participate in Youth parliament and many would have their views determined by parents
- Some of the rights are limited to practice e.g. need parental approval to get married at 16
- Scottish referendum attracted unusually high levels of participation for all age groups so is not a fair test. In UK elections, 18-24 is the age category with lowest turnout
- Very few countries allow 16-17 year olds to vote
34
What are the three main types of pressure group?
Sectional groups
Cause groups
Social movements
35
What is a sectional group?
- Seek to promote the interests of an occupation or another group in society e.g. trade unions
- Membership is usually restricted to people who meet specific requirements
36
What is a cause group?
- Focus on achieving a particular goal or drawing attention to an issue or group of related issues
- Membership usually open to anyone who sympathises with their aims
37
What is a social movement?
- Similar to cause groups but more loosely structured
- Usually politically radical and seek to achieve a single objective
38
What are insider groups?
Rely on contacts with ministers and civil servants to achieve their aims
Tend to have objectives that are broadly in line with the views of the government
39
What are outsider groups?
Not consulted by the government
Objective may be so far outside the political mainstream that the government is unlikely to enter into dialogue with them
May wish to preserve its independence and reputation for ideological purity by keeping the government at a distance
40
What factors decide the effectiveness of a pressure group?
Resources
Tactics and leadership
Public support
Government attitudes
41
How do resources deicide the effectiveness of a pressure group?
Is the group has a large membership that pay a subscription, they are more likely to have the financial resources to run offices, pay permanent staff, and organise publicity.
Size of membership can also be significant in persuading government that they represent a large portion of public opinion
42
How do tactics and leadership deicide the effectiveness of a pressure group?
Experienced, capable leadership is vital to success
Another key to success is knowing which 'access points' in the UK political system to target
43
How does public support deicide the effectiveness of a pressure group?
Those whose agenda is more in step with public opinion are more likely to be successful
44
How do government attitudes deicide the effectiveness of a pressure group?
Insider contacts with government ministers and civil servants are a key to success.
The government will usually listen to the groups on which it relies for specialist knowledge of a policy area, and whose agenda it can see some common ground
45
Case study: the BMA and the ban on smoking in cars carrying children
The BMA is a sectional group with a main focus on protecting the interest of doctors and it can also function as a cause groups on issues that affect public health. Its professional status and ability to provide scientific evidence give it credibility with the government
When they first made their case in Nov 2011, the gov had no plans for legislation, preferring to discourage drivers from smoking by publicising the health risks
They originally called for an outright ban on smoking in cars, but there was in sufficient support so they withdrew and concentrated on campaigning for prohibition when children were being carried
This attracted the support of other pressure groups such as Asthma UK. The BMA used online technology to lobby for support, providing its members with a web-based form to personalise and send to their MPs. It also made its case to members of the House of Lords. A Labour peer introduced an amendment to the 2014 Children and Families Bill, which was passed by the Lords and later accepted by the Commons. The ban came into force in October 2015.
46
Case study: the Occupy London movement
In October 2011 a group of protestors occupied the square in front of St Paul’s Cathedral in
London, where they erected tents until they were evicted by order of the High Court 4 months later. They were protesting about corporate greed in the City of London, which they held responsible for social inequality. Their actions were echoed by demonstrations in other cities, including in Wall Street, New York. Superficially they had some success in drawing attention to their cause, at a time when the coalition government’s spending cuts were widely condemned on the left of British politics for making life harder for the poor, while wealthy people in the financial sector seemed unscathed. A senior clergyman at St Paul’s resigned his post in solidarity with the protestors and there was some sympathy for them when the police were sent in to clear the camp. However, Occupy London failed to achieve long-lasting results. In part this was due to the strong stand taken by the authorities. Although initially they tolerated
the camp, when they decided to take action they were determined not to allow the protestors to settle elsewhere in London. Fundamentally, the movement’s objectives were too broad and incoherent to give them any chance of success. They represented a generalised hostility to global capitalism and did not have practical, achievable goals. Even if the government had been prepared to negotiate with the campaigners, it is hard to see what it could have done to
satisfy them.
Another problem for the Occupy movement was that, although social media helped to bring
people together quickly, it was of little use in building a long-term organisation. Ultimately it
lacked the capacity to channel its unfocused idealism into practical political activity.
47
What are think tanks?
A body of experts bought together to investigate and offer solutions to economic, social or political issues
Examples: Adam Smith institute, Centre for Policy Studies
Alternative source of ideas to the civil service - Iain Duncan Smith's think tank (Centre for Social Justice) were able to implement ideas when he became a minister in the coalition
Less politically practical ideas dreamt up by think tanks often ignored
Their work often said to lack the academic rigour expected in university circles
48
Examples of think tank's influence
The shift of Conservative Party thinking towards a more overtly free-market-oriented approach in the 1970s owed a great deal to Margaret Thatcher’s patronage of right-wing think tanks, such as the Centre for Policy Studies and the Adam Smith Institute.
The Centre for Social Justice was set up by former Conservative Party leader Iain Duncan Smith in 2004 to look for new solutions to the problems of people living in disadvantaged communities. Duncan Smith’s appointment as Work and Pensions Secretary in the coalition government 6 years later enabled him to implement some of its ideas, notably the ‘universal credit’ plan that seeks to reduce the dependence of poor people on welfare benefits.
49
What are lobbyists?
Someone who is paid by clients to seek to influence government or parliament on their behalf, particularly when legislation is being considered
Many dislike the idea that influence can be bought by wealthy individuals and organisations
Lobbying system was expected to regulate itself with lobbyists allowed to decide whether their name appeared on a public register - in 2014 it became a legal requirement for them to register if their activities include discussing policy, legislation or government contracts with a minister or senior civil servant
Governments carry out regular consultation exercises to discover what the impact or proposed legislation on relevant groups may be and may modify their plans in response to pressure
50
Concerns surrounding corporations
Suspicion that officials who take well paid jobs in the private sector after government service use their knowledge and contacts to benefit the interests of corporations
Business leaders have become ministers by being appointed to the HoL
Powerful corporations may lobby the government in an attempt to modify policies that affect their business interests
51
What are rights?
Rights are legally protected freedoms, also known as civil liberties
Citizens enter into a contract with the state which guarantees them certain rights
In return for rights, citizens have certain obligations:
- some legal; taxes, jury duty, obeying the law
- some moral; recycling, voting
52
The Human Rights act 1998
- passed by the New Labour government
- incorporated the convention of human rights into UK law
- these rights could now be defended in UK courts without having to go to Strasbourg (when the EU court is)
53
What are the major milestones in the development of rights in the UK?
Magna Carta 1215
European convention on human rights (drawn up in 1950)
Human Rights Act 1998
Equality Act 2010
54
Rights case study: Abu Qatada controversy
- Abu Qatada was known for his extremist views and inflammatory speeches
- He arrived in the UK in 1993 seeking asylum and was granted it despite concerns
- He faced deportation to Jordan, where he was wanted on terrorism charges
- His battle against deportation became a focal point of national security concern (his defence lawyer was Keir Starmer)
- Deportation was complicated by concerns that he would not receive a fair trial in Jordan
What it shows about the state of rights and responsibilities in the UK:
- Underscored the UK's commitment to rights
- Demonstrates the complexity of balancing national security with individual rights
- Reaffirmed the importance of judicial independence
55
What is the rights based culture in the UK?
All new legislation must be compliant with the HRA. Earlier acts of Parliament may also be deemed incompatible with it. Rights are fully embedded and protected within the UK
56
Indicators of the growing prominence of rights and points of tension
Increase in judicial reviews; rose from 4240 in 2000 to 15600 in 2013
The HRA - some argue it protects undeserving individuals rather than protecting legitimate freedoms of UK citizens (Abu Qatada case)
Conflicting rights - lack of clarity over rights means that conflict can occur between individuals and pressure groups
57
Rights case study: Abu Hamza
- Abu Hamza came to the UK in the early 1980s and was known for his radical sermons and support for violent jihad
- He faced many legal challenges and in 2004 was arrested on a US extradition warrant for charges including conspiring to take Western hostages in Yemen, funding terrorism and organising a terrorist training camp in Oregon
He fought against this but was extradited in 2012
58
What measures has the government introduced to help in the right against terrorism?
Secret courts
Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures (TPIMs)
Control orders
Investigatory Powers Bill
Pre-charge detention
59
What are secret courts, and how do they affect human rights?
Permit terrorist suspects and major criminals to be tried without the evidence against them being given in full
Introduced to handle cases involving national security where disclosing information could compromise intelligence methods or sources
Challenges human rights because their right to a fair trial is undermined
60
What are Terrorism Prevention and Investigation Measures (TPIMs) and how do they affect human rights?
They are measures imposed to reduce the activities of individuals suspected of involvement in terrorism
Introduced as a less intrusive alternative to control orders, aiming to balance national security with individual rights
Challenges rights because they can impose restrictions on freedom of movement and possibly privacy and liberty
61
What are control orders and how do they affect human rights?
Measures to ensure terror suspects were closely monitored when they could not be prosecuted
Introduced to manage risk posed by suspects when there was insufficient evidence to prosecute
Could impose restrictions on liberty and raises concerns about arbitrary detention and right to a fair trial
62
What is the Investigatory Powers Bill and how does it affect human rights?
It increases the power of intelligence agencies by obliging internet companies to store information about customer's browsing history
Introduced in response to technological advancement
Potential to infringe on privacy rights through mass surveillance and retention of communications data
63
What is pre-charge detention and how does it affect human rights?
- Anyone arrested under section 41 Terrorism Act 2000 is subject to a special regime for pre-charge detention. The maximum period of detention under Schedule 8 was originally set at 7 days in 2000
- This was then amended by section 306 Criminal Justice Act 2004 to 14 days
- Following the 7/7 bombings the government announced proposals to extend this to 90 days. These were defeated in the Commons in late 2005, but an alternative measure was assed to extend the maximum to 28 days
Pre-charge detention is the period that a person can be held by the police after an arrest, but before being formally charged with a crime. It is extended in terror cases to allow law enforcement more time to gather, preserve and analyse evidence
Can undermine the right to liberty, and security of person
The rejection of the extension of pre-charge detention is significant because it highlighted the balance between national security and civil liberties
64
Other rights tensions - the PCSC bill
The Police, Crime Sentencing and Courts bill introduced the following changes:
- Increased penalties for assaults on emergency workers
- New powers for police to manage public order and protests
- Changes to pre-charge ball + bail conditions
- New offences and modifications to existing offences related to serious violence and offensive weapons
- Enhanced powers for the police to extract information from electronic devices
Critics argue that the bill:
- Restricts the right to protest
- Criminalises trespass with intent to reside (which disproportionally affects traveller communities)
- Increases police powers without sufficient checks and balances
- undermines civil liberties
65
What is the 'British Bill of Rights'?
- Was in the 2015 Conservative manifesto, and was a vague pledge in the 2019 manifesto to 'update the HRA'
- The Bill of rights would retain all the ECHR rights, as well as their ability to be enforced in domestic courts
Changes it introduced:
- strengthened freedom of speech
- recognition of jury trial
- limiting courts' powers - particularly concerning deportation
- reducing burdens on public authorities
66
Why is the 'British Bill of Rights' problematic?
- Limiting court's powers and imposing stricter conditions on human rights claims restricts access to justice
- Weakens the protections currently provided under the HRA
- Some believe the bill is driven by political motives and could potentially lead to reforms which prioritise government control over individual freedoms
67
Examples of things showing how rights in the UK are and aren't secure
Rights are secure:
HRA
Judiciary
Democracy
Free press
Judicial reviews
Pressure groups
Freedom of expression
Civil Liberties
Liberty
Rights aren't secure:
TPIMs
Torture
Secret courts
Snooper's charter
Terrorism
Privacy
Safety
68
What do the pressure group Liberty do?
Liberty spearheaded the opposition against government proposals to extend pre-charge detention for terrorism suspects to 42 days.
Through lobbying and public pressure they influence parliament leading to the HoL rejecting the proposal
69
What did Howard's League do?
In 2014 they fought against a ban on prisoners receiving books from loved ones. With support from authors and public pressure the campaign led ti a high court ruling overturning the restriction
70
How do different pressure groups methods vary?
- Insider groups tend to negotiate quietly, using private contacts in Whitehall and may be given the opportunity to offer their views on draft legislation
- Pressure groups may lobby MPs
- Outsider groups lack government contacts, so may try to exercise influence through email campaigns and petitions, staging demonstrations or publicity stunts
71
What is franchise/suffrage?
The ability, or right to vote in public elections
72
What did the suffragettes and the suffragists do to extend the franchise?
- Women were allowed to vote in local council elections, but not parliamentary ones
- Suffragists used peaceful methods to change public opinion
- Suffragettes used more militant tactics e.g. Emily Davidson threw herself under the King's horse at the Epsom Derby
- Female enfranchisement initially came through the 1918 Representation of the People Act
