DAT bio Chapter 11.2 Respiratory system Flashcards
What is respiration
exchange of gas between the outside environment and the inside of an organism
autotrophs do what
produce their own food through photosynthesis, releasing oxygen and making carbohydrates
cellular respiration produces what and happens when?
after photosynthesis and uses up oxygen and carbohydrates to produce energy
Where does gas exchange occur in plants and woody stems
stomata
lenticels (wood stems)
What is the name of small invertebrates that use
simple diffusion for respiration due to the lack
of a circulatory system (no circulatory systmem)
Cnidaria
For simple diffusion to happen in Cnidaria, what criteria’s must be met?
all cells must be
in direct contact with the environment.
Environment must be moist for diffusion to
happen
Simple diffusion goes in what direction?
high to low concentration
_____includes earthworms that also use
simple diffusion for respiration but have a
closed circulatory system.
Annelida
How do annelida use simple diffusion>
They use a slimy
mucus to facilitate the transport of oxygen
into their closed circulatory system
______ are invertebrates, such as
insects and crustaceans, that have an open
circulatory system with hemolymph, a fluid
similar to blood.
Arthropoda
How does gas exchange happen in arthropoda?
Gas exchange happens
mainly through the tracheal system for
insects and through book lungs for
arachnids.
______ are a part of the phylum Chordata and
have a closed circulatory system with blood
to transport gas.
Fish
How do fish absorb oxygen and remove carbon dioxide from their blood?
Fish have gills with a large
surface area for gas exchange and use
countercurrent exchange t
Where is lungs located
thoracic cavity and are covered by the rib cage. The left lung has two lobes
and is smaller than the right lung, which has three
lobes
What covers the lung>
the pleura which is a dual-layered
membrane composed of the parietal layer (outer
layer) and the visceral layer (inner layer).
What is the pleural space?
fluid-filled space in between
the parietal and visceral layers. This space is at a
lower pressure than the atmosphere, and creates
the intrapleural pressure.
What happens during inhalation
involves the
contraction of the diaphragm (pulls lungs
downwards) and the external intercostal
muscles (expands the rib cage). These
contractions cause the pressure of the
intrapleural space to decrease and the volume
of the lungs to increase, bringing air into the
lung
What happens during exhalation during
relaxation of the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles, bringing the lungs back up and closing up the rib cage through elastic recoil . This causes the pressure of the intrapleural space to increase and the volume of the lungs to decrease, driving air out of the lungs. The internal intercostal muscles can also contract during a more forced expiration, closing the rib cage even more.
Tidal volume
e volume of air that moves
through the lungs between a normal inhalation
and exhalation.
Inspiratory reserve volume
maximum
volume of air that can be inhaled further after a
normal inhalation is already taken in.
Expiratory reserve volume
e maximum
volume of air that can be exhaled further after a
normal exhalation is already released.
Residual volume
minimum amount of air
that needs to be present in the lungs to prevent
collapse
Functional residual capacity
the entire volume
of air still present in the lungs after a normal
exhalation. It is also the sum of the expiratory
reserve volume and the residual volume
Vital capacity
maximum amount of air that
can be exhaled after a maximum inhalation. It is
the sum of the inspiratory reserve volume, tidal
volume, and expiratory reserve volume.
Total lung capacity
sum of the vital
capacity and the residual volume: it is the
maximum volume the lungs could possibly hold at
any given time.
Nasal cavity contains what 2 things
ns goblet cells
(secrete mucus) and ciliated epithelial cells
(move mucus and trapped debris) that work
in tandem with each other
Where does the pharynx start?
beginning of the throat after the nasal cavity
Under the control of _______ it diverts air and food into the larynx and the esophagus (passage talking about pharynx
epiglottis
The _____ receives air and contains the
voice box
larynx
What refers to the nasal cavity, pharynx, and larynx?
upper respiratory tract
The esophagus receives _____ and _____ to the stomach
food
connects
Trachea is below or above the larynx
below
How many bronchi are there?
2
Bronchi branch off into what
smaller bronchioles and eventually into alveoli
THe lower respiratory refers to what
trachea,bronchi, bronchioles, and alveoli
Alveoli contains what type of cells
type 1 epithelial cells (structural
support) and type 2 epithelial cells (produce
surfactant). Surfactant is a substance that
prevents the lungs from collapsing by
reducing surface tension
What is the overall pathway of AIr
Nasal Cavity → Pharynx → Larynx → Trachea →
Bronchi → Bronchioles → Alveoli
Differences in ____ allow gases to flow
from areas of high pressure to areas of low
pressure through simple diffusion.
partial pressure
Differences in partial pressure allow gases to flow
from areas of high pressure to areas of low
pressure through simple diffusion. This is required
for_______ and
internal respiration (gas exchange between
blood and tissues).
external respiration (gas exchange between inspired air and lung alveolar capillaries)
Pathway for carbon dioxide
Tissues → Blood → Air
Pathway for oxygen
Air → Blood → Tissue
Describe the structure of hemoglobin
tetrameric and has
a heme cofactor in each of its four subunits.
What is a heme cofactor
organic molecules that
contain iron atoms, which bind oxygen. Thus,
each hemoglobin can carry up to four oxygen
molecules.
What transports most of the
oxygen traveling in the blood.
Oxyhemoglobin (HbO2
What is cooperativity?
process by which
the binding of one oxygen molecule to
hemoglobin makes it easier for others to bind
due to changes in the shape of the hemoglobin
polypeptide. This also works in reverse, allowing
efficient unloading of oxygen in body tissues.
Carboxyhemoglobin (HbCO) is produced when ______outcompetes oxygen for
hemoglobin binding. Carbon monoxide poisoning
occurs as a result, because oxygen can no longer
be transported efficiently.
carbon monoxide
Carbaminohemoglobin (HbCO2 ) is a form of _______
hemoglobin that transports carbon dioxide.
What does carbon dioxide dissolve into in blood?
bicarbonate
anion (HCO3 -).
Is carbon dioxide much more soluble in blood than oxygen?
Yes
Reduced hemoglobin (H \+ Hb)
is produced by H
+
ions binding to hemoglobin, outcompeting
oxygen and lowering oxygen binding affinity (less
HbO2 ). On the other hand, carbon dioxide
binding affinity is increased (more HbCO2
Myoglobin
single peptide with one heme
cofactor. It has a much higher affinity for oxygen
than oxyhemoglobin and is found within cardiac
and skeletal muscle cells to bring oxygen in. Also,
myoglobin has a hyperbolic oxygen dissociation
curve because it does not undergo cooperativity
(hemoglobin’s curve is sigmoidal ).
oxygen dissociation curve
reveals the
relationship between the saturation of hemoglobin
with oxygen in the blood and the partial pressure
of oxygen. Certain conditions will shift this curve
either left or right.
right-shifted curve corresponds to what
lowered
affinity for oxygen in hemoglobin.
main reasons for a right-shifted curve.
- decreased pH
- High partial pressure of carbon dioxide:
- 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG)
- Increased body temperature
Decreased pH
a lower pH means there is a higher concentration of protons (H \+ ), which produces reduced hemoglobin. Reduced hemoglobin (H \+ Hb) has a lowered affinity for binding oxygen, resulting in less HbO2
High partial pressure of carbon dioxide
more carbon dioxide is converted to
bicarbonate anions (HCO3 -) and protons (H
+ ),
which lower oxygen binding affinity through
decreased pH.
2,3-diphosphoglycerate
accumulates in cells that undergo anaerobic
respiration as a result of the loss of oxygen.
This compound decreases oxygen binding
affinity so more oxygen is released from
hemoglobin to fuel aerobic respiration.
Increased body temperature:
correlates to
more cellular respiration, which uses up
oxygen and produces more carbon dioxide.
Thus, hemoglobin will need to unload more
oxygen for tissues to use and have decreased
oxygen binding affinity
left-shifted curve corresponds to what
an increased
affinity for oxygen in hemoglobin.
main reasons for a left-shifted curve
Increased pH (more basic): Low partial pressure of carbon dioxide Fetal hemoglobin fetus. Decreased body temperature
Increased pH (more basic)
fewer protons (H \+ ) to produce reduced hemoglobin (H \+ Hb), so more oxyhemoglobin (HbO2 ) remains
Low partial pressure of carbon dioxide:
less
carbon dioxide is converted to bicarbonate
anions (HCO3 -) and protons (H
+ ), leading to
increased oxygen binding affinity through
increased pH.
Fetal hemoglobin:
binds oxygen better than
adult hemoglobin to help give oxygen to the
fetus.
Decreased body temperature:
less cellular
respiration, so hemoglobin isn’t influenced to
unload more oxygen and has an increased
oxygen binding affinity
DAT Mnemonic: CADET, face Right!
CADET = Carbon dioxide, Acid,
2,3-Diphosphoglycerate, Exercise and
Temperature.
CADET Increase → Right shifted curve
What is bohr effect
hemoglobin has decreased oxygen
affinity when carbon dioxide is high. Carbon
dioxide is converted to bicarbonate anions and
protons, which produce reduced hemoglobin
(H
+ Hb)
Haldane effect
hemoglobin has increased
carbon dioxide affinity when oxygen is low. As a
result of low oxygen, reduced hemoglobin
(H
+ Hb) levels are higher and have a greater
affinity for carbon dioxide.
bicarbonate buffering system equation
CO2 + H2 O ↔ H2 CO3 ↔ HCO3- + H+
What catalyzed the bicarbonate buffering system
carbonic anhydrase both directions based
on concentrations
Carbonic anhydrase is an
enzyme present ____-
red blood cells
Carbonic acid
(H2 CO3 )
Bicarbonate anion
(HCO3– )
What is the chloride shift?
In erythrocytes (red blood cells) in the
systemic circulation, the partial pressure of
carbon dioxide is low. As a result, carbon
dioxide continuously diffuses in from the
tissues, and is converted into bicarbonate
and protons. Bicarbonate is able to diffuse
out of the cell, however, protons (H
+
) cannot
eave. As some bicarbonate diffuses out, this
creates a positive charge within the
erythrocyte, and chloride ions (Cl
-
) must
diffuse into the blood cell to cancel out the
positive charge of the protons.
_____ of protons causes the pH to decrease
within the erythrocyte, resulting in the
conversion of ____ into reduced
____ Reduced hemoglobin has lower
affinity for O2
, leading to release of oxygen which diffuses to the tissues.
Increase
oxyhemoglobin
hemoglobin.
Gas Exchange in Lungs
step 1
Blood travels to the lungs through bulk flow.
Gas Exchange in Lungs
step 2
Since most of the carbon dioxide is present
in the blood plasma as bicarbonate ions
(HCO3
-
), the bicarbonate ions re-enter
erythrocytes at the lungs and chloride ions
leave through the reverse chloride shift.
Gas Exchange in Lungs
step 3
The bicarbonate buffer system equation
proceeds in the reverse direction, producing
carbon dioxide and water. The carbon
dioxide exits into the alveoli as gas while
oxygen enters the blood, forming
oxyhemoglobin.
Where is the medulla oblongata located?
brain
What does the medulla oblongata control?
the diaphragm to regulate
respiratory rate. Central chemoreceptors and
peripheral chemoreceptors signal to the medulla.
Central chemoreceptors are located where
medulla oblongata and contained within the
blood-brain barrier.
Peripheral chemoreceptors surrounds what
aortic arch and carotid arteries.
These peripheral
chemoreceptors directly sense what
oxygen, carbon
dioxide, and proton levels to signal to the medulla
oblongata.
When carbon dioxide is ___ and ____
oxygen is , peripheral chemoreceptors signal to
the______ to increase breathing rate.
high and low
medulla oblongata
Respiratory acidosis
lowered blood pH occurs
due to inadequate breathing (hypoventilation)
Respiratory alkalosis
increased blood pH
occurs due to rapid breathing
(hyperventilation)
Metabolic acidosis
(lowered blood pH)
metabolic alkalosis
(increased blood pH)
occur as
a result of imbalances in carbon dioxide, oxygen,
or proton levels.
pathogens
Harmful microorganisms that cause disease
what are lymphocytes
white blood cells found mainly in
the lymphatic organs (T cells, B cells, natural killer
cells) that originate from the bone marrow. T cells
mature in the thymus while B cells mature in the
bone marrow.
The innate immune system is the _____-
first line of defense and generates a nonspecific immune response
