Cumulative Deck Flashcards
conscious
the information about yourself and your environment you are currently aware of
effects of authoritarian parenting style
- distrust others and withdrawal from peers- obedient attitudes are more important than discussions on why the rules are what they are- punishment used more than reinforcement
clinical psychologists
psychologists with a Ph. D. and specialize in research, assessment, and therapy
frequency distribution
a distribution of observed frequencies of occurrence of the values of a variable. Such as types of pets owned by the class. A graph showing a bar for dogs, cat, turtles
stress reactions
reactions to stressors
function of dopamine
motor movement and alertness
frontal lobotomy
type of lesioining that was used to treat mentally ill patiens
examples of stimulants
caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines and nicotine
echoic memory
a split-second perfect memory of a sound
initiative vs. guilt
third stage of psychosocial stage theorya child aged 3 - 6 years begin to take initiative that conflicts with parental wishes. Over-controlling parents may instill feelings of guilt and damage self-esteem. Supportive parents encourage emerging independence while providing appropriate controls.
concurrent validity
measures how much of a characteristic a person has now. type of criterion-related validity
Louis Terman
a Stanford professor, came up with Stanford-Binet IQ test
delusions
beliefs that have no basis in realitycommon delusions are persecution and grandeur
tardive dyskinesia
muscle tremors and stiffness caused by extensive use of anti psychotic drugs
dispositional/person attribution
personality traits; Charley did well on a math test because he is good at math
diffusion of responsibility
reduction in sense of responsibility often felt by individuals in a group; may be responsible for the bystander effect
population
anyone or anything that could possibly be selected to be in the sample
UCR
physical reactions that is natural.
orgasm (Sexual Response Cycle)
rhythmic genital contractions that may help conception, respiration and heart rate increase further, males ejaculate, often accompanied by a pleasurable euphoria
castration anxiety
part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theorythe fear that if they misbehave, they will be castrated
risk
participants cannot be placed in significant mental or physical risk
Muller-Lyer illusion
demonstrates that some perceptual rules are learned from culture and not innate. Example of cultural learning of perspective is the use of angles in the architecture of your environment.
Mary Ainsworth
conducted study on what infants would do if their parents left them alone, then came backcategorized results into secure attachments (66%), avoidant attachments (21%) and anxious/ambivalent attachments (12%)
regression
returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior. Biff starts to suck his thumb
frequency polygon
Frequency distribution can be easily represented by frequency polygon aka a line graph
response criteria (receiver operating characteristics)
signal detection theory how motivated people are to detect certain stimuli and expectations for what they want to perceive
telegraphic
second stage in language acquisitioncombination of the words into simple commands and sentences; meaning clear, syntax absent
Stanford-Binet IQ test
-divide mental age by chronological age, then multiply by 100-all adults have mental age of 20-compare: Weschler tests
dependent variable
This is the variable that is studied. Let’s say we are experimenting to find out the effect that the simpsons has on people’s tendency to be violent. The dependent variable would be the violence people experience after watching the Simpsons. The Simpsons episode would be the independent variable.
line of best fit
the line drawn through the scatter plot that minimizes the distance of all the points from the line. The slope of this best fit line can reveal correlation coefficient
stressors
stressful life events
DSM-IV-TR
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual for Mental Disorders uses an axial approach for diagnosis. These axis include
- Clinical Disorder - schitzophrenia, run of the mill psychological disorders
- Developmental and Personality Disorder - retardation, antisocial, paranoid
- Medical Disorder - diabetes, cancer, brain impairment
- Pysiological disorder - divorce, new school change (stress), fired from job
- Global Assesment of Functionality
The dms does not include the causes or the treatment of these disorders since the causes and treatment are widely contested.
paraphilia
the sexual attraction to an object, person, or activity not usually seen as sexualmost paraphilias occur more commonly in men than in women, except for masochism
institutional review board
reviews research proposal for ethical violations and/or procedural errors
avoidance-avoidance conflict
decision between two unfavorable outcomes
Jung’s unconscious
consists of collective unconscious and personal unconscious
percentile
the distance of a score from 0
Drive Reduction Theory
behavior is motivated by biological needsdoes not explain all behaviors, such as adrenaline addicts
self-theory
created by Carl Rogersbelieved that people needed unconditional positive regard in order to self-actualize
frustration-aggression hypothesis
the feeling of frestration makes aggression more likely
overabundance of dopamine
schizophrenia
vestibular sense. How is it measured?
how our body is oriented in space. Three semicircular canals in the inner ear contain fluid that causes hair cells in the canal to move. These hair cells activate neurons.
recall
retrieving a memory with an external cue
belief perseverance
tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to form the belief is contradictedcompare: confirmation bias
door-in-the-face
after people refuse a large reques, hey will look more favorably upon a follow-up request that seems, in comparison, much more reasonable
intern’s syndrome
the tendency to see in oneself the characteristics of disorders about which one is learning
informed consent
participants must know that they are involved in research and give their consent
hindbrain
structures in the top part of the spinal cord, controls basic biological functions that keep us alive. These include pons, cerebelum, and medulla
rationalization
coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence. Biff thinks he is free to find someone else better
psychosurgery
the purposeful destruction of part of the brain to alter a person’s behavior
Binocular Cues
Depth perception that depends on two eyes Binocular Disparity: Both eyes see objects with slightly different angles, brain gets both images. The closer the object becomes the more disparity. The farther the object is the less disparity between the images of the two eyes. Convergence: Eyes move closer to each other to keep focus as object gets closer to our face
examples of hallucinogens/psychedelics
LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, marajuana
psychodynamic theorists
Carl Jung and Alfred Adler
Galen
a Roman philosopher who maintained that psychological illnesses were influenced by biological factors and could therefore be treated
psychoanalysts
people trained specifically in Freudian methods who may or may not hold medical degrees
similarity, proximity and reciprocal liking
the three factors
Alfred Binet
wanted to design test to find children who would need help in school and created mental age
random selection
randomly selecting the sample group, increases the likelihood that the sample represents the population
penis envy
part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theorygirls are jealous of boys’ penises
variance
the average of the squared differences of each number from the mean
Howard Gardner
multiple intelligences theoristSpatial, Linguistic, Logical-mathematical, Bodily-kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal, Intrapersonal, Naturalistic[In his garden grew many different kinds of smart plants]
fugue
dissociative disorderhaving psychogenic amnesia and finding oneself in an unfamiliar environment
UCR
physical reactions that is natural.
repression
pushing thoughts out of conscious awareness
dissociative identity disorder
dissociative disorderseveral personalities that may represent different ages and both sexes, people with DID commonly have a history of sexual abuse or some other childhood traumarare outside of US; DIDers may be role-playing b/c of their therapists’ questions and media portrayals
fissures
wrinkles in the cerebral cortex
decay
not using a memory or connections to a memory for a long period of time
Gordon Allport
theorized that in order to have a full understanding of someone’s personality, you needed to look at their personal traitsposited three types of personal traits: cardinal dispositions, central and secondary dispositions
amplitude
the height of a sound wave, measured in decibels. The more amplitude the louder the sound or the brighter the color.
id
contains instincts and psychic energy, called Eros and Thanatosexists entirely in the unconscious mindpropelled by pleasure principle
schizophrenia
disordered, distorted thinking often demonstrated through delusions and/or hallucinations
scatter plot
a series of points plotted on a graph. Used to plot correlations
basic research
research that explores questions that are of interest of psychologists that are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications
linguistic relativity hypothesis
Benjamin Whorf language may control or limit our thinking- studies show effect of labeling on how we think about people, objects, or ideas, but do not show that language changes what we can think about
abnormality
- maladaptive and/or disturbing to the individual2. disturbing to others3. unusual, unshared by many others of the same population4. irrational, doesn’t make sense to the average person
correlation
a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause
Sigmund Freud
created psychoanalytic theory
availability heuristic
judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially
criticisms of Freud
- little empirical evidence- all reactions can be taken as proof for psychoanalystic theory- little predictive power, only diagnose psychological issue can not predict.; Contemporary research finds it hard to believe that personality is determined by the age of 5, Freud over estimated the importance of sex and childhood. only explains past actions- feminists find “penis envy” objectionable, Karen Horney and Nancy Chodorow posit “womb envy”
sampling error
the extent to which a sample differs from the population
Turner’s syndrome
chromosonal abnormality only one X chromosome in the 23rd pair causes shortness, webbed necks
blind spot
where the optic nerve leaves the retina, calls such because has no rods or cones
explicit (declarative) memory
conscious memories of facts or events we actively tried to remember
naturalistic observation
unobtrusive observation on subjects in their natural habitats, control is sacrificed
histogram
Frequency distribution can be easily represented by histogram aka a bar graph
Barnum effect
the tendency for people to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality
binging
eating large amounts of food in a short amount of time
opponent-process theory
the theory that sensory receptors in the retina come in pairs. opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. If one receptor in a pair is stimulated, its counterpart is prohibited from firing. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. Explains colorblindness and afterimages. For afterimages, basically if you stare at red for a long time, you have fatigued this sensor, then when you look at a blank wall the opponent process (green) fires. For color blindness, opponent-process theory works, because of the whole idea that sensory receptors come in pairs, and dichromatic color blind people have difficulty seeing colors that are paired in accordance to the opponent-process theory. Therefore a color blind person would have difficulty sensing red and green or yellow and blue.
Weber’
s law for hearing
convergent thinking
thinking pointed toward one solution
gate-control theory
when a higher priority pain message coincides with a lower priority pain message, only the higher one will be felt. Endorphins and other drugs such as opiates like morphine swing the gate shut.
confounding variable
any difference between the experimental and control conditions, besides the changes of the independent variable
Mood or affective disorder
experience extreme or inappriate behavior. Major depressive disorder is one of the most common mood or affective disorder.
drugs used to treat unipolar depression
tricyclic antidepressants, monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, and serotonin-reuptake-inhibitor drugs (Prozac) which all tend to increase the activity of serotonin
brain plasticity
the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions. Declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize.
integrity vs. despair
eighth stage of psychosocial stage theoryFrom age 65 to death, people who look back on their lives with satisfaction develop a sense of wholeness and integrity. Those in despair look back with regret and disappointment in the lives they have led.
triadic reciprocality/reciprocal determinism
the person (traits), the environment, and the person’s behavior each influence both of the other two in a constant looplike fashion
just-world belief
misfortunes befall people who deserve them
confirmation bias
the tendency to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is truecompare: belief perseverence
mere-exposure effect
old stimuli are preferred over new stimuli, because on some level the old stimuli are remembered and known, regardless of consciouss awareness of the old stimuli. The unconscious might recognize the stumuli
Noam Chomsky
language acquisition devicealso called nativist theory of language acquisition
symptom substitution
when, after a person is successfully treated for one psychological disorder, that person begins to experience a new psychological problem. This belief is held by psychoanalysts that believe that the unconscious root of the problem must be solved in order to prevent symptom substitution
cognitive dissonance theory
the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when our awareness of our attitudes and of our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes
group test
test administered to a large group of people, less expensive, more objectivecompare: individual test
Management Theory
consists of theory x and theory y
Autonomic Nervous System
controls the automatic functions of our bodydivided into two categories: sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systemscompare: Somatic Nervous System
comparative psychologists
look at the psychology of non-human animals
plateau phase (Sexual Response Cycle)
respiration and heart rate continue at an elevated level, genitals secrete fluids in preparation for coitus
drugs used to treat anxiety disorders
barbiturates (Miltown) and benzodiazepines (Xanax and Valium)
in-group
people of their own group, seen as more diverse than people of out-groups
central dispositions
more apparent than secondary dispositions, but less so than cardinal dispositions
delta sleep/slow-wave sleep
stages 3 and 4’s other names due to the delta waves that exist during these stagesreplenishes the body’s chemical supplies, releasing growth hormones in children and fortifying the immune system. we move into stages 3 and 4, which are sometimes called delta sleep (also called slow-wave sleep) because of the delta waves that exist during these stages. The slower the wave (slow waves are low-frequency waves), the deeper the sleep and less aware we are of our environment. A person in delta sleep is very difficult to wake up. If you are awakened out of delta sleep, you may be very disoriented and groggy. Delta sleep seems to be very important in replenishing the body’s chemical supplies, releasing growth hormones in children, and fortifying our immune system. A person deprived of delta sleep will be more susceptible to illness and will feel physically tired. Increasing exercise will increase the amount of time we spend in stages 3 and 4.
midbrain
coordinates simple movements with sensory information contains reticular formation. Ex: if you move your head to the left, the midbrain coordinates with your eyes to keep your eyes focused on the text.
genital (psychosexual stages)
fifth and final stage, fixation here is normal
EQ (emotional intelligence)
ability to identify, assess, and control the emotions of oneself, of others, and of groups; helps people achieve what they want to achieveroughly corresponds to Gardner’s interpersonal and intrapersonalsupported by Daniel Goldman
positive symptoms
excesses in behavior, thought, or moodexamples: neologisms, hallucinationscompare: negative symptoms
attribution theory
how people determine the cause ofwhat they observe
dream analysis
one of the three methods used by psychoanalysts. the patient reports the literal content (manifest content) to the psychoanalyst who interprets it to become what it really means (latent/hidden content)
measures of central tendency
mean, median, mode
superego
exists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious mindsense of conscience. Ego moderates between the superego which has the sense of right and wrong and the id.
intrinsic motivators
rewards we get internallymost effective at continuing a behavior
Moro reflex
startled, fling limbs out, quickly retract them, make himself as small as possible
standard deviation
the square root of the variance
frequency polygon
line graph
instrumental conditioning
behavioral therapyinvolves using rewards and/or punishments to modify a person’s behavior
cerebellum
part of hindbrainlooks like smaller version of brain stuck onto the underside of brain, coordinates HABITUAL muscle movements
generativity vs. stagnation
seventh stage of psychosocial stage theoryFrom age 40 - 65, adults need to express their caring about future generations by guiding/mentoring others or producing creative work that enriches the lives of others. Failing this, people become stagnant and preoccupied with their own needs and comforts.
field experiment
conducted in the world, more realistic than laboratory experiment
hypnosis
one of the three methods used by psychoanalysts. an altered state of consciousness in which psychoanalysts believe that people are less likely to repress troubling thoughts
biopsychology
explains human thought and behavior in terms of biological processes only
insight therapies
psychoanalytic/psychodynamic treatments and humanistic therapiesa variety of therapies which aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing the client’s awareness of underlying motives and defenses
iconic memory
a split-second perfect photograph of a scene
homeostasis
a balanced internal state
mood congruent memory
the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matches the mood we were in when the event happened
self-concept
a person’s global feeling about himself and herself
Jean Piaget’s cognitive development stage theory
created by Jean Piaget1. sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)2. preoperational stage (2 to about 7 years)3. concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)4. formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
resistance (GAS)
hormones are released t maintain physiological readiness described in alarm reaction, if it lasts too long, can deplete resources
voyeur
paraphiliasomeone who becomes sexually aroused by watching others engage in some kind of sexual behavior
coercion
participation must be voluntary
measures of central tendency
mean, median, mode
eidetic (photographic) memory
the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure
anterograde amnesia
old memories can be recalled, new memories (except procedural) cannot be made
George Kelley
proposed personal-construct theory of personality
antagonists
drugs that block neurotransmitters. However, instead of acting like the neurotransmitter, they simply prevent the natural neurotransmitters from using that receptor site. Other drugs prevent natural neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed back into a neuron, creating an abundance of that neurotransmitter in the synapse. No matter what mechanism they use, drugs gradually alter the natural levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. The brain will produce less of a specific neurotransmitter if it is being artificially supplied by a psychoactive drug.
reflex
specific, inborn, automatic responses to certain specific stimuli
semantic network theory
memories are linked to one another like spiderwebs
afferent neurons
neurons that take information from the senses to the brain
opiates
drugs that act as agonists for endorphins and reduce pain and elevate mood
conversion disorder
somatoform disorder a severe physical problem with no biological cause
anal retentive
Used to describe people that are meticulously neat and a bit compulsive. Occurs due to fixation on the anal stage.
Eros
one of the 2 Instincts in id. Eros is the life instinct. Eros is responsible for desire for sex.
secondary dispositions
less apparent than central dispositions
General Anxiety Disorder
- constant low-level anxiety such as cosntantly feeling nervous.
medulla
part of hindbraincontrols blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing
longitudinal research
study of one group of participants over time+ precisely measures the effects of development on a specific group- time consuming, results may take years to develop
secondary prevention
methods to avoid occurrence of disease in people at risk
somatotype theory
William Sheldonidentified three body types: endomorphs (fat), mesomorphs (muscular), and ectomorphs (thin)each body type associated with certain personality traits
archetypes
universal concepts we all share as part of the human species
random assignment
each subject has an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or the control group
displacement
redirecting one’s feelings towards another person or object. When people displace negative emotions like anger, they often displace them onto people whoa re less threatening than the source of the emotioncompare: projection
superiority
the desire to achieve theorized by Adler to motivate people
cause of mood or affective disorders according to different theorists
Psychanalysts believe that mood disorders are caused by anger directive inward and overly strict suger ego. Behaviorists believe that mood disorders bring along some sort of reinforcement such as sympathy and attention
dissociation theory
created by Ernest Hilgard hypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily; one part stays tuned to reality, another part to the hypnotist. In an experiment investigating hypnotism and pain control, Hilgard asked hypnotized participants to put their arm in an ice water bath. Most of us would feel this intense cold as painful after a few seconds, but the hypnotized participants reported no pain. However, when Hilgard asked them to lift their index finger if any part of them felt the pain, most participants lifted their finger. This experiment demonstrated the presence of a hidden observer, a part or level of our consciousness that monitors what is happening while another level obeys the hypnotist’s suggestions.
divergent thinking
thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a questionassociated with creativity
predictive validity
measures future performancetype of criterion-related validity
cognitive psychologists
examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events
valid
measures what it’s supposed to measure accurate
olfactory bulb. Difference between smell and all other senses in terms of the brain?
Gathers information from olfactory nerves and sends the information to the limbic system instead of the thalamus like all other senses. The limbic system is composed of amygdala and hippocampus
side effects of stimulants
disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, increased anxiety, heart problems
occipital lobes
at the very back of the brainimpulses from the right half of each retina is processed in the right occipital lobe and vice versa
Raymond Cattel
16 PF (personalty factor)
Hippocrates
a Greek philosopher who maintained that psychological illnesses were influenced by biological factors and could therefore be treated
componential/analytic intelligence
the ability to compare and contrast, explain, and analyzepart of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
speed test
large number of questions asked in a short amount of time, insufficient time is givengoal: see how fast someone can solve problemscompare: power test
mesomorphs (muscular)
according to William Sheldonaggressive
triadic reciprocality/reciprocal determinism
the person (traits), the environment, and the person’s behavior each influence both of the other two in a constant looplike fashion. So if brad thinks he is friendly (trait) , he will go to parties (environment), talk to people at these parties (behavior). The more Brad talks to people at parties the more he is reasured that he is friendly (trait)
lesioning
the removal or destruction of part of the brainexample: frontal lobotomy
treatment of narcolepsy
treated with medication and changing sleep patterns (naps at certain times of the day)
Freudian ego psychologist
a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the ego not able ego psychologist Alfred Adler believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority
cardinal dispositions
one trait that plays a pivotal role in virtually everything a small number of people do
standardization samples
a group of people representative of the people who normally will take the test
somatoform disorders
when a person manifests a psychological problem through a physiological problem
reality principle
followed by egonegotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment
Two Factor Theory
Stanley Schacter- better than James-Lange and Cannon-Bard- both physical responses and cognitive labels combine to cause emotion- experiment showed that aroused people felt emotions more intensely than not aroused people
counterbalancing
using subjects as their own control group by having half of them be experimental first and half of them be control first
Womb Envy
Horney and Chodorow’s belief that men are jelous of women’s reproductive capability. Contradiction to Freud’s penis envy.
experimenter bias
the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypotheses
agonist
drugs that mimic neurotransmitters. psychoactive drugs are small enough to pass through the blood-brain barrier. These molecules either mimic or block naturally occurring neurotransmitters in the brain. The drugs that mimic neurotransmitters are called agonists. These drugs fit in the receptor sites on a neuron that normally receive the neurotransmitter and function as that neurotransmitter normally would
belief bias
when people’s preexisting beliefs interfere with their logical reasoning
latency (psychosexual stages)
forth stage, calm and low psychosexual anxiety
humanistic psychology
also called the third forceview people as innately good and able to determine their own destinies through the exercise of free will focus on self-concept and self-esteem
dependent variable
This is the variable that is studied. Let’s say we are experimenting to find out the effect that the simpsons has on people’s tendency to be violent. The dependent variable would be the violence people experience after watching the Simpsons. The Simpsons episode would be the independent variable.
population
anyone or anything that could possibly be selected to be in the sample
continuity
developing steadily from birth to death
order of sound in your ear
ear canal -> eardrum/tympanic membrane -> (3 bones known collectively as obssicles) hammer (malleus bone) -> anvil (incus bone) -> stirrup (stapes bone) -> oval window -> cochlea (snail’s shell filled with fluid) -> hair at bottom of cochlea -> organ of Corti (neurons activated by the hair) -> auditory nerve
frequency
the length of the waves and determines pitch, measured in megahertz
cornea
a protective covering of the eye that initially takes in the light reflected by an object. Also the cornea helps to focus on light
reality principle
followed by ego negotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment
personality
the unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person
insane
a legal term used to describe people who, because of a psychological disorder, cannot be held fully responsible for their crimesNGRI= not guilty by reason of insanity
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
a book used by psychologists to determine if someone has a psychological disorderdoes not include discussion of causes or treatments because different factions of psychology have different ideas about the causes and treatmentslatest version is the DSM-IV-TR
tertiary prevention
methods to diagnose and treat existent disease in early stages before it causes significant morbidity
prefrontal lobotomy
a type of psychosurgeryan operation involving the cutting off of the main neurons leading to the frontal lobe of the brainreduced level of functioning and awareness to a vegetative state
chunking
grouping items in about 7memory tool
Charles Spearman
(spearman = penis = trying to get the g strap
intelligence theoristused factor analysis (statistical technique that measures the correlations between different items) to conclude that underlying many different specific abilities “g” factor
double binds
cognitive-behavioral cause for schizophreniacontradictory messagescompare: double blinds
systematic desensitization
behavioral therapydeveloped by Joseph Wolpe, a type of counterconditioning that associates a pleasant relaxed state with imagined, gradually increasing anxiety-triggering stimuli, eventually replacing the feelings of anxiety with relaxation
measures of variability
attempt to depict the diversity of the distribution. range, variance, and standard deviation
attachment
the reciprocal relationship between parent and child
John Watson
studied Ivan Pavlov’s conditioning experiments, main proponent of behaviorism
operationalize
to explain how you will measure variables such as the independent and dependent variables
Thanatos
one of the 2 instincts in id. Thanatos is the death instinct. Thanatos is seen in aggression.
undifferentiated schizophrenia
exhibit disordered thinking, but none of the other symptoms
heritability
the measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited
rationalization
coming up with a beneficial result of an undesirable occurrence
kinesthetic sense
the position and orientation of specific body parts, because receptors in muscles send information to the brain
approach-avoidance conflict
one event/goal has both good and bad outcomes
Parasympathetic Nervous System
part of the Autonomic Nervous Systemslowing body down after a stress responsecompare: Sympathetic Nervous System
synapse
the space beween the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neurons
manifest content
The first part out of two of dreamsL: literal content of dreams compare: latent content
image
mental pictures created in mind, not necessarily visual
sleep apnea
when a person stops breathing for short periods of time during the night- robs the person of deep sleep- causes attention and memory problems- Since these individuals do not remember waking up during the night, apnea frequently goes undiagnosed. Overweight men are at a higher risk for apnea. Apnea can be treated with a respiration machine that provides air for the person as he or she sleeps.
contact theory
contact between hostile groups will reduce animosity, but only if the groups are made to work toward a goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all (superordinate goal)
electroencephalogram (EEG)
detects brain waves, used in sleep research
subliminal
stimuli below absolute threshold
secure attachments (66%)
Mary Ainsworth’s baby experimentconfidently explore novel environment when parents are present, distressed when they leave, go to parents when they return
self-esteem
A measure of how much you value and respect yourself
primary prevention
methods to avoid occurrence of disease
motor cortex
in the frontal lobesends signals to muscles, controlling voluntary movementsbottom of cortex controls top of body and vice versa
resistance
patient objections to the psychoanalyst’s interpretationthe psychoanalyst usually sees this as a sign that the analyst is heading in the right direction
false-consensus effect
the tendency of people to overestimate the number of people who agree with them
Somatoform disorders, Common somatoform disorders
Psychological condition caused by physical symptom. Common disorders include hypochrondriasis and conversion disorder. Someone suffering from hypochrondriasis might have several complaints to tell a doctor and the doctor will not be able to locate the cause. Also hypochrondriasis suffers believe that they small things such as headaches are indicative of terminal illness. Conversion disorder the patient will report the existence of a severe physical problem and then believe that they trully have this problem (e.g. blindness).
biopsychology
Also known as neuroscience. Explains cognition in terms of genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones. Biology basically
George Kelley
proposed personal-construct theory of personality
free associate
one of the three methods used by psychoanalysts. to say whatever comes to mind without thinking, supposed to bypass the ego’s censoring and defenses and go straight into the unconscious where the problems are
naturalistic observation
unobtrusive observation on subjects in their natural habitats, control is sacrificed
activation-synthesis theory
dreams are nothing more than the brain’s interpretations of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep
sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex)
receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the bodybottom of sensory cortex receives sensations from top of body and vice versa
aptitude test
test that measures ability or potential
hypothesis testing
reason from a hypothesisstarts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
anal (psychosexual stages)
second stage, toilet trainingfixation: overly controlling (retentive), out of control (expulsive)
ectomorphs (thin)
according to William Sheldonfriendly and outgoing
family therapy
a type of group therapy used to treat families
LaPiere study
discovered that although people had bad attitudes towards Asians, they still treated them wellconclusion: attitude does not necessarily reflect behavior
approach-approach conflict
decision between two favorable outcomes
Dominant sense of babies
Dominant sense of babies is hearing and then this dominant sense changes to vision as the baby matures. Vision is impaired when baby is born
anonymity/confidentiality
both protect privacy
reaction formation
expressing the opposite of how one truly feels. Biff says he hates her.
preparedness
biological predisposition to learn some things more quickly than others
laboratory experiment
conducted in a lab, a highly controlled environment. Psychologists prefer laboratory setting for experimenting, because a controlled experiment can more easily show a relationship
psychodynamic theorists
psychologists who are influenced by Freud’s work but have significantly modified his original theory
institutional review board
reviews research proposal for ethical violations and/or procedural errors
frontal lobes
part of the cerebral cortexresponsible for abstract thought and emotional controlcontains: Broca’s area and motor cortex
normal curve
theoretical bell-shaped curve for which the area under the curve lying between any two z scores has been predetermined. 68 % of scores fall within 1 standard deviation of the curve. 95% fall within 2 standard deviations, 98% fall within 3 deviations
abnormal psychology
the study of people who suffer from psychological disorders
internals
people who are ore motivated to eat by internal hunger cues (empty stomach)
posthypnotic amnesia
people forget events that occurred during hypnosis
Max Wertheimer
a Gestalt psychologist
Theta Waves
While we are awake and in stages 1 and 2, our brains produce theta waves, which are relatively high-frequency, low-amplitude waves. However, the theta waves get progressively slower and higher in amplitude as we go from wakefulness and through stages 1 and
oral (psychosexual stages)
first stage, pleasure through mouthfixation: overeating, smoking, childlike, dependence on things and people
postconventional
examines rights and values involved in choice- steal
projection
believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held by the other person and directed at oneselfcompare: displacement
Wilhelm Wundt
set up the first psychological laboratory, trained subjects in introspection. He was one of the first to draw a distinction between perception and sensation. Through the use of introspection. He conducted an experiment where he played a sound and the test subject tried to say what the sound was. Wundt found that sensation and perception are different, because the test subject could identify whether they heard the sound faster than they could identify the sound they heard.
range
the distance between the highest and lowest score in a distribution
heuristic
a rule of thumb, generally but not always truetypes: availability heuristic and representativeness heuristicaffected by: belief bias and belief perseverance
unconditional positive regard
a kind of blanket acceptance important in Carl Rogers’ self-theory. Unconditional positive regard is needed in order for people to strive towards self actualization
Gestalt psychology
examined a person’s total experience, not just bits and pieces of it; second wave of psychology. Usually deals with understanding visual deception.
perceptual set
Based off of schemata, mental representation of the world based off of past perception. a predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way
cones
cells activated by colorcompare: rods
scatter plot
a series of points plotted on a graph. Used to plot correlations
function of serotonin
mood control
constancy
the ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in direct appearance that are attributed to changes in the angle of your view or light shining on it. Types of constancy include size, shape, and brightness constancy
trephination
a operation that removes a circular section of bone from the skull
Categories of disorder in DSM
- Anxiety
- somato form disorder
- dissociative disorder
- mood or affective disorder
- schizophrenia
- personality
range
the distance between the highest and lowest score in a distribution
recency effect
Ebbinghaus believed that the order in which we memorize things matters in our later retrieval of the memory. predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the end of a listcompare: primacy effect
figure-ground relationship
A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that states that we automatically separate the elements of a perception into the feature that clearly stands out and its less distinct background.
counseling psychologists
psychologists with a graduate degree in psychology and treat less severe problems than clinical psychologists do
Stanley Schacter
created Two Factor Theory
criticisms of Jean Piaget’s cognitive development theory
- underestimates children- too discontinuous. Due to the emphasis on language in these tests, older boys had an advantage
Cannon-Bard theory
theory of emotion that the body changes and understanding of the emotion occurs simultaneously from cues in the thalamus- inaccurate about the thalamus playing such a big role, other structures such as the amygdala are involved
Jean Piaget
created cognitive-development theory
authoritative parenting style
set, consistent standards that are reasonable and explainedencourage children’s independence, but not past point of violating rulespraise as much as punishexplanations encouraged
operationalize
to explain how you will measure variables such as the independent and dependent variables
Flynn effect
performance on intelligence tests has been increasing steadily throughout the century, probably due to better environmental factors
instrumental aggression
aggression as a means to some goal other than causing pain
place theory
hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea. Some hair bends in response to high pitches others due to low pitches
drive
an impulse to act in a way that satisfies this need
measures of variability
attempt to depict the diversity of the distribution. range, variance, and standard deviation
trust vs. mistrust
first stage of psychosocial stage theoryduring the first year of life, infants learn to trust when they are cared for in a consistent warm manner
experiment
only experiments can show cause and effect relationships through the manipulation of the independent variable and subsequent observation of the dependent variable while controlling for confounding variables
insomnia
problems getting to sleep/staying asleep at nightaffects up to 10% of people. Treated with changed behavior, like less caffeine, exercise ect. No medicine
purging
getting rid of food through vomiting, excessive exercise, or laxative use.
theory y (Management Theory)
employees are internally motivated to do good workhas more benefits
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
basic needs are fulfilled before other needs physiological (hunger, thirst, sex)safety (safe, secure, out of danger)belongingness and loveesteem (approval and recognition)self-actualization (fulfill unique potential
determinism
the belief that what happens is dictated by what has happened in the pastcompare: free will
standard deviation
the square root of the variance
line of best fit
the line drawn through the scatter plot that minimizes the distance of all the points from the line
language acquisition
natural unconscious process of language development in humans that occurs without instruction, but needs exposure1. babbling 2. telegraphic
mesomorphs (muscular)
according to William Sheldonaggressive
absolute threshold
the smallest amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time. This 50% is to account for other stimulation that might impede or indvidual variation
stratified sampling
randomly sampling each strata (category of people, for example race or gender) of the population, so that the final sample reflects the population more accurately
short-term (working) memory
memories currently using and are aware of in consciousness- short-term memories will fade in 10 to 30 seconds if mused - capacity is limited to about 7 items
myelin sheath
a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses
endomorphs (fat)
according to William Sheldonshy and secretive
cardinal dispositions
one trait that plays a pivotal role in virtually everything a small number of people do
locus of control
Julian Rotterinternal locus of control- they are responsible for what happens to themexternal locus of control- outside forces are responsible for what happens to theminternals tend to be healthier, more politically active and do better in school
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. Use schemata to produce perceptual set. compare: bottom-up processing
hallucination
perception without sensory stimulation
Henry Harlow
study on monkeys with two wire frame monkey mothers, one with milk, one that was soft- monkey babies preferred soft mother over milk motherconclusion: physical comfort is important in the formation of attachment with parents- wireframe baby monkeys became more stressed and frightened than normal baby monkeys when put into new situations
efferent neurons
neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body
which two reflexes help babies eat
rooting and sucking reflex
free will
an individual’s ability to choose his or her own destinycompare: determinism
personality
the unique attitudes, behaviors, and emotions that characterize a person
bystander intervention
the act of helping strangers in an emergency situation
informed consent
participants must know that they are involved in research and give their consent
self-help groups
a type of group therapy that does not involve a therapist
Alfred Adler
a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the ego who also believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority
repression
the pushing down into the unconscious events and feelings that cause so much anxiety and tension that our conscious mind cannot deal with them
frequency polygon
line graph
Fixation
Occurs during any of freud’s psychosexual phase where the person is either over or under gratified.
George Sperling
demonstrated sensory memory by flashing a grid of 9 letters for 1/20th of a secondalso: iconic memory
recognition
the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory
incentive
stimuli that we are drawn to due to learning
humanism
stresses individual choice and free will, most of our behaviors are chosen due to physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs. Famous humanist rogers and maslow.
anxiety hierarchy
a rank-ordered list of what the client fears, from least frightening to most frightening
alarm reaction (GAS)
heart rate increases, blood is diverted away from other body functions to muscles needed to react, activates the sympathetic nervous system
anal expulsive personality
Results from a fixation in the anal stage, where the person has is very messy and disorganized
behaviorism
psychologists should only look at behavior and causes of behavior, not elements of consciousness; fourth wave of psychology; dominant school of thought from the 1920s to 1960s. Strictly focuses on conditioning
blind sight
some blind people can respond to visual stimuli because on some level of consciousness is able to “see”
archetypes
universal concepts we all share as part of the human species. E.g. shadow represents evil
corpus callosum
the nerve bundle that connects the two hempisheres cut in split-brain patients
Gestalt psychology
examined a person’s total experience, not just bits and pieces of it; second wave of psychology. Usually deals with understanding visual deception.
eclectic
drawing from multiple perspectives of psychology; fifth wave of psychology; most current psychologists are eclectic
William Masters and Virginia Johnson
Sexual Response Cycle
Peripheral Nervous System
consists of nerves not encased in boneDivided into two categories: somatic and automatic nervous systemcompare: Central Nervous System
determinism
people have no influence over what happens to them and that their choices are predetermined by forces outside of their controlcompare: free will. Determinism is believed by psychanalysts and behavioralists
resolution (Sexual Response Cycle)
respiration and heart rate return to normal resting states, men experience a refractory period- a time period that must elapse before another orgasm, women do not have a similar refractory period and can repeat the cycle immediately
correlation coefficient
range from -1 and +1. If there is a positive correlation, the presence of one thing indicates the presence of the other. If there is a negative correlation, the presence of one indicates the absence of the other. -1 and +1 indicate strong correlations, 0 indicates the weakest type of correlation.
limbic system
Hippocampus and amygdala
Freudian ego psychologist
a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the egonotable ego psychologist Alfred Adler believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority
masochist
paraphiliasomeone who is aroused by having pain inflicted upon them
identity vs. role confusion
fifth stage of psychosocial stage theoryFrom age 12 - 20, the major task is to build a consistent identity, a unified sense of self. Failure of teens to achieve a sense of identity results in role confusion and uncertainty about the future.
Within group differences are greater than
between group differences. If boys are said to out perform girls in IQ tests, then the average boy has more of a relation to the average girl. The highest score guy and the lowest scoring guy are more different from each other compared to their differences between them and the average girl
relearning
after learning and forgetting, learning again becomes faster
post-traumatic stress disorder
anxiety disorderflashbacks or nightmares following a person’s involvement in or an observation of an extremely troubling event, these memories cause anxiety
behaviorism
psychologists should only look at behavior and causes of behavior, not elements of consciousness; fourth wave of psychology; dominant school of thought from the 1920s to 1960s. Strictly focuses on conditioning
what are thorazine and haldol?
antipsychotic drugs. A side effect of these drugs is tardive dyskinesia, aka muscle tremors
Compare how each of these Psychological Perspectives would explain introvertedness
Behavioral - Believe that the introvert was conditioned to be shyCognitive - The introvert does not find value in multiple connectionsBiopsychology - Believes the introvert inherted introvertedness as a geneHumanistic - Believes the introvert can satisfy his social need through only a few people. Psychoanalytic - Believe that some traumatic childhood experience that has been repressed has caused introvertedness.Socioculture - Believe culture determines introvertedness
examples of opiates
morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine
Learned Helplessness
Seligman’s combined behavioral and cognitive theory that we learn to feel helpless due to prior experiences. This helplessness is unwarranted, since these aspects are controllable. May result is passivity and depression.
counterconditioning
behavioral therapy a kind of classical conditioning developed by Mary Cover Jones in which an unpleasant conditioned response is replaced with a pleasant one
response/subject bias
when subjects behave in ways they think the observer wants them to behave
castration anxiety
part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theorythe fear that if they misbehave, they will be castrated
achievement motivation
desire to master complex tasks and knowledge, desire to reach personal goals, desire to figure out worldregardless of benefits
debriefing procedures
participants must be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researchers about study results
hallucinogens/psychedelics
drugs that cause changes in perceptions of reality, including sensory hallucinations, loss of identity, and vivid fantasiesstay in body for a long timeeffects are less predictable
ego
follows the reality principlejob is to negotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environment exists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious minduses defense mechanisms to protect the conscious mind from the threatening thoughts buried in the unconscious
flat affect
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenicslack of emotinal reactivity
sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)
first stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive-development theoryobject permanencebehavior governed by senses and reflexes. Object permanence is developed
Criticisms of Lawrence Kohlberg
Carol Gilligan noted that his research was based on boys, her research showed that boys and girls had different moral attitudes, but was later disprovedHowever, her criticism brought attention to how possible gender differences may change how we develop
split-half reliability
test is split into two, each half is tested, if the scores are consistent, then the test is reliable (the closer the correlation is to +1, the more reliable)
personal-construct theory of personality
George Kelleypeople, in their attempts to understand the world, develop their own individual systems of personal constructspeople’s behavior is based on how they interpret the world
Heinz dilemma
stealing a drug he cannot afford in order to save his wife’s life
debriefing procedures
participants must be told the purpose of the study and provided with ways to contact the researchers about study results
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
when an electric current is passed through one (unilateral ECT) or both (bilateral ECT) hemispheres of the braincauses the patient to have a brief seizure after the shock, so muscle relaxant is given to reduce the effects
thalamus
part of forebrainlocated at top of brain stemreceives sensory signals from spinal cord and sends hem to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain
demand characteristics
cues about the purpose of the study. You want to reduce these, so that the subjects have no idea what is being studied so that the subjects can experience less response bias
extrinsic motivators
rewards received for accomplishments that are outside ourselvesvery effective for a short amount of time
Theory for the cause of somatoform disorders
- Psychoanalists believe somatoform disorders are caused by unresolved unconscious issues
- Behaviorists believe that these somatoform disorder suffers are being reinforced. The hypochondriasis may be rewarded with a great deal of attention
interference
other information competes with what you’re trying to recalltwo types: retroactive and proactive
heritability
a measure of how much of a trait’s variation is explained by genetic factorcan range from 0 to 1, with 0 being completely environmentally affected and 1 as completely genetically affected
industry vs. inferiority
fourth stage of psychosocial stage theorya child from age 6 through puberty extends social functioning beyond the family. The child must learn that productivity is valued in this sphere to achieve a sense of competence or he will develop a sense of inferiority.
attitude
set of beliefs and feelings
collective unconscious
unconscious passed down through the species explains the similarities across culturescontains archetypes
variance
Provides the most even more than the range about how spread out the scores are
the average of the squared differences of each number from the mean
locus of control. Who created this theory?
Rotter (seems like a voodo type name)
internal locus of control- they are responsible for what happens to themexternal locus of control- outside forces are responsible for what happens to theminternals tend to be healthier, more politically active and do better in school
Wernicke’s area
located in temporal lobeinterprets both written and spoken speech
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)
created by Hans Seyledescribes the general response animals have to a stressful event1. alarm reaction2. resistance3. exhaustion
paranoid schizophrenia
schizophrenia characterized by delusions of persecution
Yerkes-Dodson law
relationship between performance and arousal that states that performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point
assimilation
the incorporation of experiences into existing schemata
self-theory
created by Carl Rogersbelieved that people needed unconditional positive regard in order to self-actualize
percentile
the distance of a score from 0
rehearse
repeatmemory tool
in-group bias
people have a preference for members of their own group
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)
a sophisticated 3D X ray of the brain
night terrors
feelings of terror or dread usually affecting childrenoccurs during stage 4 sleep
construct validity
correlates the new test with another already-proved-to-be-valid test. Issue is finding a valid test to correlate to
trichromatic theory
there are three types of cones in the retina (blue, red and green) that activate in different combinations to produce all the colors of the visible spectrumdoes not explain afterimages and color blindness
psychoanalysis
human behavior, experience, and cognition are largely determined by irrational drives; third wave of psychology
p value
the percent chance that the findings were due to chance
information processing model
a continuous alternative of Piaget’s stage theory
field experiment
conducted in the world, more realistic than laboratory experiment
Carl Rogers
humanistcreated client-centered therapy/person-centered therapy
displacement
redirecting one’s feelings towards another person or object. When people displace negative emotions like anger, they often displace them onto people whoa re less threatening than the source of the emotioncompare: projection
free will
an individual’s ability to choose his or her own destinycompare: determinism
nxious/ambivalent attachments (12%)
Mary Ainsworth’s baby experimentshow extreme stress when parents leave, but resist being comforted when they return
nonconscious
The nonconscious controls your body processes such as heart rate and digestion.
Ernest Hilgard
dissociation theory. Tried to guard again hypnosis
personal unconscious
resembles Freud’s view of the unconscious contains the painful or threatening memories and thoughts the person does not wish to confront
conventional
choice based on how others will view them- steal
tardive dyskinesia
Parkinsonian-like, chronic muscle tremors
big five personality traits
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and emotional stability (or neuroticism)
fluid intelligence
the ability to solve abstract problems and pick up new information and skills, seems to decrease over timecompare: crystallized intelligence
externals
people whoa re motivated to eat by external food cues, such as attractiveness or availability
mnemonic aids
memory aidsmemory tool
heritability
the measure of the percentage of a trait that is inherited
humanistic psychology
also called the third forceview people as innately good and able to determine their own destinies through the exercise of free willfocus on self-concept and self-esteem
assignment
the process by which subjects are put into a group, experimental or control
Describe sensory adaption, sensory habituation, and ,cocktail-party phenomenon
Sensory adaption is the decreasing responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation. Like you feel cold when you first get into a pool, then you stop feeling so cold. Sensory habituation explains the cocktail-party phenomenon, since the sensory habituation says that sensation is due partially to how much we focus on it. So if you are talking with your friend at a party, and someone across the room says your name, you will focus on them. This is called the cocktail-party phenomenon
test-retest reliability
correlation between a person’s score on one administration of the test with the same person’s score on a subsequent administration of the test
nomothetic
the belief taht the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people’s personalitiesHans Eyesenck’s introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scaleRaymond Cattel’s 16 PF (personalty factor), big five personality traits
J.P. Guilford
primary mental ability theory has well over 100 different abilities[The combination of GUILE and over 100 different abilities made her invincible]
normal curve
theoretical bell-shaped curve for which the area under the curve lying between any two z scores has been predetermined
Age’s effect on Sleep
age affects the pattern. Babies not only spend more total time sleeping than we do (up to 18 hours), they also spend more time in REM sleep. As we age, our total need for sleep declines as does the amount of time we spend in REM sleep.
action potential
the local voltage change across the cell wall as a nerve impulse is transmitted
preoperational stage (2 to about 7 years)
second stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive-development theoryuse of symbols to represent real-world objectsstart using language, but limited in the ways of thinking about objects and their relationships
B.F. Skinner
behaviorist, expanded the ideas to include reinforcement
eclectic
drawing from multiple perspectives of psychology; fifth wave of psychology; most current psychologists are eclectic
Bandura, Ross, and Ross’s experiment
Bobo doll experimentaggressive models lead to aggressive children
Garcia effect
taste aversion, when nausea and a food are paired, the food will be averted in the future
concepts of conservation
the properties of objects remain the same even when their shapes changestarts in concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)
criticism of trait theories
underestimate importance of the situation. Not one is always conscientious.
narcolepsy
periods of intense sleepiness and falling asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate timesaffects less than 0.001% of people
dependent personality disorder
rely too much on the attention and help of others
somnambulism
sleep walking usually occurring in children occurs during stage 4 sleep
intellectualization
undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic
unconditional positive regard
blanket acceptance and support of a person regardless of what the person says or doeshumanistic therapists believe that this will help clients accept and take responsibility for themselves
idenitification
part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theorywhen a person emulates and attaches themselves to an individual who they believe threatens them. Seves 2 purposes: boys stop fearing father and boy break away from attachment to mom by acting like men
Dythmic disorder
A mood or affective disorder that is basically depression lasting for more than 2 years.
Harold Kelley
put forth a theory that explains the kind of attributions people make based on three kinds of information: consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus
semantic memory
general knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially
pleasure principle
The pleasure principle wants immediate gratification. Id is directed by the pleasure principle.
case study
a full, detailed picture of one subject or a small group of subjects; not reflective of population, as a result findings cannot be generalized
feature detectors
discovered by Hubel and Weisel, nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. Feature detectors are located in the visual cortex.
overgeneralization
misapplication of grammar rules
temperaments
heritablethe emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the worldthought to influence the development of his or her personality
reliable
can be replicated, consistent
flashbulb memory
highly detailed memory of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising news is heard
intellectualization
undertaking an academic, unemotional study of a topic. Begins to study and research the causes of failure in relationships
structuralism
the idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations (sensations meaning a stimulus’s effect on our senses)
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
anxiety disorderwhen persistent, unwanted thoughts (obsessions) cause someone to feel the need (compulsion) to engage in a particular action
survey method
kind of correlational research in which surveys are filled out; difficult to control for confounding variables, because surveys are mailed out and people take the survey at different times of the day, different places, take different amounts of time to fill out the survey. Surveys are a research method where the independent variable is not manipulated
distinctiveness
how similar this situation is to other situations in which we have watched the individual
ventromedial hypothalamus
causes animal to feel full when stimulated
afterimage
an image (usually a negative image) that persists after stimulation has ceased
metabolic rate
how quickly body uses energy
levels of processing model
- long/short-term memory doesn’t exist- instead, deeply (elaboratively) or shallowly (maintenance) memory
bottom-up processing vs top-down processing
Bottomup processing is slower but more accurate. Top down processing is faster but prone to more errors
self-efficacy
Refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes. Those with high levels for a particular task are more likely to succeed than those with low levels. Bandura believed self-efficacy effected personality.
clang associations
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenicsa string of nonsense words that rhyme
difference threshold (just-noticeable difference)
the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we can detect a changecomputed by Weber’s law
biopsychology
Also known as neuroscience. Explains human thought and behavior in terms of genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones. Biology basically
arousal theory
motivated by the need for an optimum level of excitement or arousalperformance is best at optimum levels of arousal, depending on how difficult the task is (Yerkes-Dodson law)
superiority
the desire to achievetheorized by Adler to motivate people
language acquisition theory
the ability to learn a language rapidly as children
denial
not accepting the ego-threatening truth. Biff continues to act as if he and Muffy are still together. He waits by her locker, calls her every night, and plans their future dates.
bottom-up processing (feature analysis)
we use only the features of the object itself to perceive itcompare: top-down processing
reliable
can be replicated, consistent
group matching
Assigning to either control or experimental based on specific requirements. If you were testing the relationship between IQ and gender, then you would group match so that the experimental and control groups had equal amounts of both genders
penis envy
part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theorygirls are jealous of boys’ penises
Weber’s law for sight
constant for vision: 8%
repression
pushing thoughts out of conscious awareness
Down’s syndrome
extra chromosome on the 21st pairrounded face, shorter fingers and toes, slanted eyes set far apart, different extents of mental retardation
hypochondriasis
somatoform disorderminor problems are thought to be severe physical illness, frequent physical problems with no apparent cause
sublimation
channeling one’s frustration toward a different goalviewed as a particularly healthy defense mechanism
Compare how each of these Psychological Perspectives would explain introvertedness
Behavioral - Believe that the introvert was conditioned to be shyCognitive - The introvert does not find value in multiple connectionsBiopsychology - Believes the introvert inherted introvertedness as a geneHumanistic - Believes the introvert can satisfy his social need through only a few people. Psychoanalytic - Believe that some traumatic childhood experience that has been repressed has caused introvertedness.Socioculture - Believe culture determines introvertedness
norms of reciprocity
if someone does something nice for you, you feel obligated to do something nice for them
ex post facto study
research in which subjects are chosen based on a pre-existing condition all other variables are controlled
Ventromedial
Part of the hypothalamus that when stimulated causes the animal to stop eating
Gordon Allport
theorized that in order to have a full understanding of someone’s personality, you needed to look at their personal traitsposited three types of personal traits: cardinal dispositions, central and secondary dispositions
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion that a hypnotized person have a certain way after hypnosis
fundamental attribution error
people in individualist cultures systematically seem to overestimate the role of dispositional factors in influencing another person’s actions
algorithm
a problem solving technique that guarantees the correct solution by trying every possibility
mental age
an average 5-year-old will have the mental age of 5a below average 5-year-old may have the mental age of 3an above average 5-year-old may have the mental age of 8
self-efficacy
Refers to one’s belief about one’s ability to perform behaviors that should lead to expected outcomes. Those with high levels for a particular task are more likely to succeed than those with low levels
cognitive therapy
developed by Aaron Beck, usually used in treatment of depression, involves trying to get clients to engage in pursuits that will bring them success. Along thw way the patient will realize the irrational thought
situation-relevant confounding variables
differences between the experimental and control situations that may affect the experiment
prototype
what concepts are based on, the most typical example of a particular concept
self-report inventories
questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselvesexample: Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)
long-term potention
repeated firings between neurons strengthen the connection between them
nerve (sensorineural) deafness
when the hair cells in the cochlea are damaged, usually by loud noise
covert behavior
Behavior that can be subjectively perceived only by the person performing the behavior. Thoughts and feelings are covert behaviors.
retina
a screen on the back of your eye, where the inverted light is reflected. The retina contains specialized neurons activated by different wave lenghts
reticular formation
a netlike collection of cells throughout the midbrain that controls general body arousal and he ability to focus our attentionif it does not function, you will fall into a coma
functional fixedness
an example of rigiditythe inability to see a new use for an object
criticism of trait theories
underestimate importance of the situation
implosive therapy
behavioral therapya type of counterconditioning that has the client imagine the most anxiety inducing thing first, in the hopes that they will realize that their fear is irrational
obesity
severely overweight, unhealthy eating habits, some are genetically predisposed
phallic (psychosexual stages)
third stage, babies realize genderboys have Oedipus complex, girls have Electra complexfixation: later problems in relationships
framing
the way a problem is presented
Sympathetic Nervous System
part of the Autonomic Nervous Systemmobilizes our body to respond to stresscompare: Parasympathetic Nervous System
nomothetic
the belief taht the same basic set of traits can be used to describe all people’s personalitiesHans Eyesenck’s introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scaleRaymond Cattel’s 16 PF (personalty factor)big five personality traits
Wilhelm Wundt
set up the first psychological laboratory, trained subjects in introspection. He was one of the first to draw a distinction between perception and sensation. Through the use of introspection. He conducted an experiment where he played a sound and the test subject tried to say what the sound was. Wundt found that sensation and perception are different, because the test subject could identify whether they heard the sound faster than they could identify the sound they heard.
idenitification
part of Freud’s psychosexual stage theorywhen a person emulates and attaches themselves to an individual who they believe threatens them. Seves 2 purposes: boys stop fearing father and boy break away from attachment to mom by acting like men
protected sleep
ego protects us from unconscious by representing everything in symbols
projective tests
used by psychoanalystsinvolve asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuliexample: Rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test (TAT). Reveal unconscious thought. Critisized because they rely too heavily on the therapists interpretation
teratogens
certain chemicals or agents that can cause harm if ingested/contracted by the mother. Even though the placenta filters out harmful chemicals, tetraogens such as alcohol can pass through the placent
demand characteristics
cues about the purpose of the study. You want to reduce these, so that the subjects have no idea what is being studied so that the subjects can experience less response bias
valid
measures what it’s supposed to measure; accurate
individual test
test administered on a one-on-one basis, more expensive, less objective. e.g. rorsach test.compare: group test
concrete operations (8 to about 12 years)
third stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive-development theorystart to think more logically about complex relationshipsconcepts of conservation
rigidity (mental set)
the tendency to fall into established thought patterns
existential therapy
humanistic therapy that focuses on helping clients achieve a subjectively meaningful perception of their lives
procedural memory
memories of skills and how to perform them
Babinski reflex
foot stroked, spread toes
rapid eye movement (REM)
As you go back through stage 3 and 2, right before stage 1 our brain produces a period of intese activity. The more stress we experience during the day, the more time we will spend in REM sleep. Lack of REM sleep interfers with memory. Dreams occur during REM sleep
factor analysis
a statistical technique used to reduce the vast number of different terms we use to describe people to 16 or five basic traitsgroups the traits that correlate under a common factor
achievement test
test that measures what one has accomplished or learned
terminal buttons
also called: end buttons, terminal branches of axon, also called synaptic knobs branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitter
depressants
drugs that slow down body processesexamples: alcohol, barbiturates, anxiolytics (tranquilizers/antianxiety drugs ex: Valium). lows down our reactions and judgment by slowing down brain processes. The inhibition of different brain regions causes behavioral changes. For example, when enough alcohol is ingested to affect the cerebellum, our motor coordination is dramatically affected, eventually making it difficult or impossible for the user to even stand. Because it is so widespread, more research has been done on alcohol than on any other psychoactive drug.
transduction
the process in which signals are transformed into neural impulses
psychotherapy
therapeutic interaction or treatment contracted between a trained professional and a client, patient, family, couple, or group. Preffered by behaviorists, psychoanalysts, and humanists
prosocial behavior
behavior in which you help others created Skinner box
response/subject bias
when subjects behave in ways they think the observer wants them to behave
sampling
the process by which subjects are selected
selective attention
determines what is encoded from sensory memory to short-term memory
lack of serotonin
associated with clinical depression
William James
published psychology’s first textbook: The Principles of Psychology, created functionalism
pupil
dilates and becomes smaller to allow the right amount of light into your eye. The muscle that controls the pupil is the iris
tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon
condition of being almost, but not quite, able to remember something; used to investigate the nature of semantic memory
correlation coefficient
range from -1 and +1. If there is a positive correlation, the presence of one thing indicates the presence of the other. If there is a negative correlation, the presence of one indicates the absence of the other. -1 and +1 indicate strong correlations, 0 indicates the weakest type of correlation.
babbling stage
innate, represents a baby’s experimentation with phonemesafter this stage, the baby loses the phonemes unused in the primary language
deinstitutionalization
1960s and 1970s governmental policy that focused on releasing hospitalized psychiatric patients into the community and closing mental hospitals in order to save money and benefit the former inpatients. Patients were provided drugs, but this technique of deinstitutionalization did not work
catatonic schizophrenia
engage in odd movements such as remaining motionless in strange postures for hours at a time, move jerkily and quickly for no apparent reason or alternate between the twowhen motionless, may display waxy flexibilityincreasingly less common form of schizophrenia in United States
antipsychotic drugs (neuroleptics)
block the receptor sites for dopamine, used to treat schizophrenia, may result in tardive dyskinesiaexamples: Thorazine or Haldol
generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
anxiety disorderconstant, low-level anxiety
latent content
the second part of dreams: the unconscious meaning of the manifest contentcompare: manifest content
Erik Erikson
neo-Freudian theoriest who believed in basics of Freud’s theory but adapted it to fit his own observationscreated psychosocial stage theory
psychosocial stage theory (eight stages)
created by Erik Erikson1. trust vs. mistrust2. autonomy vs. shame and doubt3. initiative vs. guilt4. industry vs. inferiority5. identity vs. role confusion6. intimacy vs. isolation7. generativity vs. stagnation8. integrity vs. despair
psychoanalysis
a set of techniques developed by Freud for exploring underlying motives and a method of treating various mental disorders
initial excitement (Sexual Response Cycle)
genital areas become engorged with blood, penis becomes erect, clitoris swells, respiration and heart rate increase
SSherif’s camp study
Robbers Cave studydivided the campers into two groups and had them compete –> disliked each otherhad the two groups work together –> improved relations
schemata
mental representations of how we expect the world to be. Background information.
hunger motivation
stomach feels full –> we feel full (balloon experiment)
somatotype theory
William Sheldonidentified three body types: endomorphs (fat), mesomorphs (muscular), and ectomorphs (thin)each body type associated with certain personality traits
William James
published psychology’s first textbook: The Principles of Psychology, created functionalism
Hawthorne effect
Being selected for an experiment inherently changes behavior, since the subject know that they are being studied
consciousness
level of awareness
positively skewed
when a distribution has a high outlier, there are more low scores than high scores due to the outlier. This makes sense since the high score is considered to skew the graph. It is difficult to make times between outliers and mode, because mode is really not effected too much by outliers
REM rebound
individuals deprived of REM sleep will experience more and longer periods of REM sleep the next time they are allowed to sleep normally
lens. Process by which lens conducts its task
curved and flexible in order to focus the light through a called accommodation. Light is flipped upside down and inverted when it passes the lens.
cognitive triad
theorized by Aaron Beckunreasonably negative ideas that people have about themselves, their world and their futures. failure is attributed to internal, global and stable causes. success is attributed to external, specific and unstable causes
frequency polygon
Frequency distribution can be easily represented by frequency polygon aka a line graph
tolerance
a physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect compare: reverse tolerance. olerance will eventually cause withdrawal symptoms in users. Withdrawal symptoms vary from drug to drug. They range from the headache I might get if I do not consume any caffeine during the day to the dehydrating and potentially fatal night sweats (sweating profusely during sleep) a heroin addict experiences during withdrawal. Dependence on psychoactive drugs can be either psychological or physical or can be both. Persons psychologically dependent on a drug feel an intense desire for the drug because they are convinced they need it in order to perform or feel a certain way. Persons physically dependent on a substance have a tolerance for the drug, experience withdrawal symptoms without it, and need the drug to avoid the withdrawal symptoms. Different researchers categorize psychoactive drugs in different ways, but four common categories are stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opiates.
effects of alcohol
slowed down reactions and judgment, impaired motor coordination
inappropriate affect
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenicsexpressing contradictory behavior when describing or experiencing an emotion (e.g., smiling when discussing something sad; laughing when talking about the death of a loved one).
mere exposure effect
the more one is exposed to something, the more one will come to like it
basic research
research that explores questions that are of interest of psychologists that are not intended to have immediate, real-world applications
self-actualization
to reach one’s highest potential
Phineas Gage
a railroad worker involved in an accident that damaged the front part of his brain
panic disorder
anxiety disorderacute episodes of intense anxiety without any apparent provocation, panic attacks tend to increase in frequency, people suffer more anxiety from anticipating the attacks
Alexandra Luria
studied a patient with eidetic memory who could repeat a list of 70 letters or digits and remember it up to 15 years later
What are false positives? Which theory explains false positive?
when we think we perceive a stimulus that is not there. Signal Detection Theory
lateral hypothalamus
causes animal to eat when stimulated
ex post facto study
research in which subjects are chosen based on a pre-existing condition; all other variables are controlled
self-actualize
to reach one’s full potentialbelieved by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
Alfred Adler
a Freudian psychologist who downplays the importance of the unconscious and focuses on the conscious role of the ego who also believed people were motivated by inferiority and superiority
personal-construct theory of personality
(White girls interpret the world differently) Kelly people, in their attempts to understand the world, develop their own individual systems of personal constructs (these constructs are opposites e.g. smart and dumb). people’s behavior is based on how they interpret the world also known as the fundamental postulate
biopsychology
Also known as neuroscience. Explains human thought and behavior in terms of genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones. Biology basically
random assignment
each subject has an equal chance of being placed in either the experimental or the control group
episodic memory
memories of specific events, stored in a sequential series of events
rods
cells that respond to black and whiteoutnumber cones 20:1compare: cones
group matching
Assigning to either control or experimental based on specific requirements. If you were testing the relationship between IQ and gender, then you would group match so that the experimental and control groups had equal amounts of both genders
bipolar disorder (manic depression)
dissociative disorderdepressed and manic (feelings of high energy) episodeslinked with more receptors for acetylcholine. Usually do not make good descisions during these manic episodes
hypothesis
a relationship between two variables
experiment
only experiments can show cause and effect relationships through the manipulation of the independent variable and subsequent observation of the dependent variable while controlling for confounding variables
inferiority
the fear of failuretheorized by Adler to motivate people
circadian rhythm
a daily cycle of activity observed in many living organisms
biopsychology
Also known as neuroscience. Explains cognition in terms of genetics, neurotransmitters, hormones. Biology basically
Phobia
Unwarranted fear of a situtation (spiders) nigga. Spider man?
phobia
anxiety disorderan intense, unwarranted fear of a situation or object
consistency
how similarly the individual acts in the same situation over time
negatively skewed
when a distribution has a low outlier, there are more high scores than low scores due to the outlier
superego
exists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious mindsense of conscience
priming
the activation, sometimes unconsciously of information, therefore predisposing you to a response
phi phenomenon
flashing lights will appear to be one moving light
temporal lobes
unlike occipital lobes, sound from either ear is processed in both temporal lobescontains Wernicke’s area
endomorphs (fat)
according to William Sheldonshy and secretive
random selection
randomly selecting the sample group, increases the likelihood that the sample represents the population
discontinuity
developing with some stages of rapid growth and some of relatively little change
laboratory experiment
conducted in a lab, a highly controlled environment. Psychologists prefer laboratory setting for experimenting, because a controlled experiment can more easily show a relationship
Barnum effect
the tendency for people to see themselves in vague, stock descriptions of personality
histogram
Frequency distribution can be easily represented by histogram aka a bar graph
brain lateralization/hemispheric specialization
specialization of function in each hemisphere
stage theories
theories in which development is thought to be discontinuousexample: Freud’s stage theory see developmental psychology chapter 9
sleep spindles? Which stage of sleep do most people spend time in the most
short bursts of rapid brain waves that start to appear in stage 2 sleep. People spend approximately 50 percent of their time asleep in stage 2. Approximately 25 percent is spent in REM, 20 percent in deep sleep (stages 3 and 4), and only about 5 percent in stage 1.
attributional style
a person’s characteristic way of explaining outcomes of events in his or her life
hypnotic suggestibility
some people are more easily hypnotized than othersricher fantasy life, follow directions well, and able to focus intensely on a single task for a long period of time
retrieval
two types of retrieval: recognition and recall
dissociative disorders
disruptions in conscious processes
Thomas Bouchard
Studied twins found high correlation between IQ of twincs that were raised in different house holds. Therefore found that IQ is somewhat genetic and a bit environmental. One critism of this experiment in that since both twins are identical they could be treated the same by their environment, causing the same effective psychological environment. Therefore environment not genetics would have caused the high correlation in IQ
stereotypes
ideas about what members of different groups are like, and these expectations may influence the way we interact with members of these groups
need
one of our requirements for survival
sleep onset
the stage between wakefulness and sleep. Our brain produces alpha waves when we are drowsy but awake. We might experience mild hallucinations (such as falling or rising) before actually falling asleep and entering stage 1
Functional MRI
combination of MRI and PET
self-esteem
A measure of how much you value and respect yourself
standardized
tested on a standardization sample and made to fit norms
Raymond Cattel
16 PF (personalty factor)
anonymity/confidentiality
both protect privacy
secondary dispositions
less apparent than central dispositions
long-term memory
permanent storage
metacognition
thinking about thinkingstarts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
Elizabeth Loftus
showed that recovered memories could be constructed or false recollections of events
dopamine hypothesis
high levels of dopamine are associated with schizophrenia
introspection
the purposeful and rational self-observation of one’s mental state; first wave of psychology. This method suffers, because sometimes we can not accurately describe our thoughts and feelings.
self-fulfilling prophecy
an expectation that causes others to act in ways that make that expectation come true
amygdala and hippocampus
hippocampus- arms surrounding the thalamus amygdala- structures near the end of each hippocampal arm involved in processing and perceiving emotion. The hippocampus is crucial for processing memory, Memory is not stored in the hippocampus
Albert Bandura
believed that personality is created by an interaction between the person (traits), the environment, and the person’s behavior
somatic treatments
the use of drugs to treat mental illness. The treatment preffered by biomedical psychologists
Festinger and Carlsmith experiment
Subjects asked to perform a boring task and then lie to the next subject that it was fun. One group was paid $1 and the other group was paid $20. The group paid $1 said that the boring task was fun, because they didn’t have much of an external motivation to lie.
B.F. Skinner
behaviorist, expanded the ideas to include reinforcement
comparative psychologists
look at the psychology of non-human animals
contralateral control
each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body
equipotentiality
any animal can be conditioned to do anythingopposite to instinctive drift
Sexual Response Cycle
created by William Masters and Virginia Johnson1. initial excitement2. plateau phase3. orgasm4. resolution
valid
measures what it’s supposed to measure, accuratecompare: reliability
sensory memory
a split-second holding tank for incoming sensory information
determinism
the belief that what happens is dictated by what has happened in the pastcompare: free will
face validity
"if it looks like it works"
flooding
in systematic desenitization, flooding is confronting the most anxiety filled thing on the anxiety hierarchy first in the hopes that if the patient withstands the anxiety, he/she will realize how irrational the fear is.
personal unconscious
resembles Freud’s view of the unconscious contains the painful or threatening memories and thoughts the person does not wish to confront
Broca’s area
in the frontal loberesponsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech
serial position effect (curve)
when recall of a list is affected by the order of items in a listprimacy effect and recency effect
regression
returning to an earlier, comforting form of behavior
theory x (Management Theory)
(legalism) people will only work for benefits or threatened with punishments
psychopharmacology/chemotherapy
the use of drugs to treat psychological problems
subconscious
information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior like priming and mere-exposure. Information in your subconscious affects how you process information and includes implicit memories. The unconscious is a term used mostly by psychodynamic theorists to refer to troubling thoughts that we have actively pushed out of our conscious minds.
Hawthorne effect
Being selected for an experiment inherently changes behavior, since the subject know that they are being studied
humanism
stresses individual choice and free will, most of our behaviors are chosen due to physiological, emotional, or spiritual needs. Famous humanist rogers and maslow.
temperaments
heritablethe emotional style and characteristic way of dealing with the worldthought to influence the development of his or her personality
disorganized schizophrenics
use language oddly with neologisms and/or clang associationsalso show inappropriate affect and flat affect
function of acetylcholine
neuro transmitter motor movement
constructed memory
may report false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occured
papillae
the bumps on your tongue that contain taste buds. Chemicals from food are absorbed by taste buds.
James-Lange theory
the theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
reaction formation
expressing the opposite of how one truly feels
big five personality traits
extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, openness to experience, and emotional stability (or neuroticism)
Jung’s unconscious
A psychodynamic an offshoot of freud’s psychanalytic consists of collective unconscious and personal unconscious
sadist
paraphiliasomeone who is aroused by inflicting pain on someone else
stimulants
drugs that speed up body processes. including autonomic nervous system functions such as heart and respiration rate. This dramatic increase is accompanied by a sense of euphoria. The more-powerful stimulants, such as cocaine, produce an extreme euphoric rush that may make a user feel extremely self-confident and invincible. All stimulants produce tolerance, withdrawal effects, and other side effects (such as disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, increased anxiety, and heart problems) to a greater or lesser degree that corresponds with the power of the drug.
free will
the ability to choose their own destiniescompare: determinism
self-actualize
to reach one’s full potentialbelieved by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers
content validity
how well a measure reflects the entire range of material it’s supposed to be testing
pleasure principle
followed by idimmediate gratification
psychodynamic theory of gender development
gender development is a competition for your opposite sex parent, when you realize you can’t win, you imitate your same-sex parentdifficult to verify this idea
blood-brain barrier
thick walls surrounding the brain’s blood vessels that protect the brain from harmful chemicals
cross-sectional research
participants of different ages to compare how certain variables may change over life span+ produces quick results- results may be due to factors other than age, such as historical evens and cultural change
superordinate goal
a goal that benefits all and necessitates the participation of all
bulimia
has two phases: binging and purgingmostly women
foot-in-the-door
if you can get people to agree to a small request, they will become more likely to agree to a follow-up request that is larger
proactive interference
old information interferes with the recall of newer informationcompare: retroactive interference
John Watson
studied Ivan Pavlov’s conditioning experiments, main proponent of behaviorism
negatively skewed
when a distribution has a low outlier, there are more high scores than low scores due to the outlier
introspection
the purposeful and rational self-observation of one’s mental state; first wave of psychology. This method suffers, because sometimes we can not accurately describe our thoughts and feelings.
cognitive triad
theorized by Aaron Beckpeople’s beliefs about themselves, their worlds, and their futures
Libido
Psychic energy that results due to fixation
criticisms of Freud
- little empirical evidence- all reactions can be taken as proof for psychoanalystic theory- little predictive power; only explains past actions- feminists find “penis envy” objectionable, Karen Horney and Nancy Chodorow posit “womb envy”
social readjustment rating scale (SRRS)
designed by Thomas Holmes and Richard Rahemeasures stress using life-change units (LCUs)regardless of posiive or negative, events may have the same LCU countshows correlation between stress and disease
representativeness heuristic
judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind
preconventional
reasoning limited to how things affect themselves- don’t steal the drug
psychosexual stages
theorized by Sigmund Freud1. oral2. anal3. phallic4. latency5. genital
projective tests
used by psychoanalystsinvolve asking people to interpret ambiguous stimuliexample: Rorschach inkblot test, thematic apperception test (TAT)
frequency distribution
a distribution of observed frequencies of occurrence of the values of a variable. Such as types of pets owned by the class. A graph showing a bar for dogs, cat, turtles
experiential intelligence
the ability to use their knowledge and experiences in new and creative wayspart of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
DMS - anxiety disorders
- Phobia
- general axiety
- panic disorder
- obsessive compulsive disorder
- posttraumatic stress disorder
situation attribution
situational influence; Charley did well on a math test because the test was easy
What kind of psychologists use “client”?
therapists other than psychologists with a biomedical orientation and psychoanalysts
line of best fit
the line drawn through the scatter plot that minimizes the distance of all the points from the line
psychiatrists
medical doctors and are the only therapists permitted to prescribe medication
repression
the pushing down into the unconscious events and feelings that cause so much anxiety and tension that our conscious mind cannot deal with them
optic chasm
the place nerves from both eyes join and cross over within the brain
preventative efforts
psychological problems can be treated proactively, or before they become severe, suffering and cost to client will go down.
sampling
the process by which subjects are selected
secondary drives
learned drives
id
contains instincts and psychic energy, called Eros and Thanatos exists entirely in the unconscious mindpropelled by pleasure principle. Wants instant gratification. You see this in babies that cry
denial
not accepting the ego-threatening truth
Weber’s law
the change needed to make a noticeable difference to something is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus
compliance strategies
strategies to get others to comply with your wishes
neurotransmitters
chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate
Sigmund Freud
created psychoanalytic theory
Daniel Goldman
supports EQ (emotional intelligence)[a heart of gold]
signal detection theory
Claims that there are competing stimuli that try to gain our attention. a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (“signal”) amid background stimulation (“noise”). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. Signal detection criteria takes into account our response criteria which accounts for how motivated we are to see the object.
reliability
results are consistent can be duplicatedcompare: reliability
waxy flexibility
characteristic of catatonic schizophrenicsfeature of catatonic schizophrenia in which people rigidly maintain the body position or posture in which they are placed by others
psychoanalysts
people trained specifically in Freudian methods who may or may not hold medical degrees
Rosenthal and Jacobsen’s experiment
“Pygmalion in the Classroom”when teachers expect students to do well and show intellectual growth, they do, example of self-fulling prophecy
psychoanalysis
human behavior, experience, and cognition are largely determined by irrational drives; third wave of psychology
power test
questions are asked in increasing difficulty level, sufficient time is givengoal: see what the ceiling difficulty level iscompare: speed test
experimenter bias
the unconscious tendency for researchers to treat members of the experimental and control groups differently to increase the chance of confirming their hypotheses
split-brain patients
patients whose corpus callosums have been cut, operation pioneered by Sperry.
lack of dopamine
Parkinson’s disease
creativity
original/novel but still fits the situation
hostile aggression
aggression stemming from feelings of anger and aimed at inflicting pain
central dispositions
more apparent than secondary dispositions, but less so than cardinal dispositions
counterbalancing
using subjects as their own control group by having half of them be experimental first and half of them be control first
hypothesis
a relationship between two variables
UCS
Natural event or thing that stimulates
morphemes
the smallest unit of meaningful soundcompare: phonemes
self-report inventories
questionnaires that ask people to provide information about themselvesexample: Minnesota multiphasic personality inventory (MMPI)
defense mechanism
psychological strategies brought into play by the unconscious mind to manipulate, deny, or distort reality
hypothalamus
part of forebraincontrols several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst and the endocrine system, which secretes chemicals
Cause of anxiety disorder according to different types of psychologists
- Psychoanalytic psychologists believe that anxiety disorder is caused by conflict between id, ego, and super ego
- Behaviorists - believe that anxiety is learned through either classical or operant conditioning
- Cognitive Psychologists - Believe that anxiety is caused by dyfunctional way of thinking. For example someone with general anxiety disorder might feel like they have to excell at everything they do
Somatic Nervous System
controls voluntary muscle movementscompare: Autonomic Nervous System
projection
believing that the feelings one has toward someone else are actually held by the other person and directed at oneselfcompare: displacement. Believes that the girl still cares for him
Did deinstitutionalization work?
No, because the former patients were unable to care for themselves, ending up homeless and delusional.
permissive parenting style
unclear guidelines for their children rules are constantly changed or aren’t enforced consistently. Children are more likely to be dependent and have emotional control problems
order effect
the order of the experimental/control group activities may affect the results. So if we were testing IQ and alcohol. Then taking 1 IQ test before alcohol and the taking another IQ test after alcohol, might produce results that state that IQ goes up with alcohol, because the subject had the practice of IQ test number 1 before taking test number 2. The problem of order effect can be fixed by counterbalancing. Having one person take the IQ test first and then alcohol, and having another person take IQ with alcohol and then take an IQ when sober
autokinetic effect
When you stare at a light for too long, the light will appear to move.
psychogenic amnesia
dissociative disorderwhen a person cannot remember things and a physiological basis cannot be foundcompare: organic amnesia
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT or RET)
Cognitive behavioral therapy developed by Albert Ellis. Therapists look to expose and confront the dysfunctional thoughts of their clients. So if I had social phobia, the therapist would say that it is unlikely that i would fail during my spheech and then make me contemplate the worst scenario. Sometimes rational emotive therapy involves going out and experiencing this behavior.
Monocular Cues
Not dependent on two eyes
pons
part of hindbrainconnects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain, involved in the control of facial expressions
reverse tolerance
the first dose lingers in the body and enhances the effect of the second dose although it may be smallercompare: tolerance
psychoactive drugs
chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and induce an altered state of consciousness
functionalism
Why we behave how we do? functionism differed from structuralism in that functionalism did not focus on the elements consciousness, funtionalism focused on the purpose of consciousness, and how this consciousness functioned in our lives. Functionalism used evolution to explain behavior.
Weschler test
yields deviation IQ scores, mean is 100, standard deviation is 15, scores form a normal distributionalso has subscores for verbal and performance
client-centered therapy/person-centered therapy
developed by Carl Rogers, this humanistic therapy includes unconditional positive regard and active listening
Robert Sternberg
created triarchic theory, which consists of 1. componential/analytic intelligence 2. experiential intelligence 3. contextual/practical intelligence. Believed that intelligence was based on context
UCS
Natural event or thing that stimulates
phonemes
the smallest units of sound used in a languagecompare: morphemes
modeling
behavioral therapy and cognitive therapy. Modeling can be used to treat phobia by having the client observe someone else interact calmly with the anxiety inducing object
major (unipolar) depression
mood or affective disorderunhappiness for more than two weeks without a clear reasonother symptoms: loss of appetite, fatigue, change in sleeping patterns, lack of interest in normally enjoyable activities, feeling of worthlessnesslinked with low levels of serotonin and norepinephrine
non-directive
humanistic therapists do not tell the clients what to do but seek to help the clients choose a course of action for themselves.
intimacy vs. isolation
sixth stage of psychosocial stage theoryFrom age 21 - 40, the major task is to achieve intimacy (deeply caring about others and having meaningful experiences with them). Otherwise, we experience isolation, feeling alone and uncared for in life
effects of authoritative parenting style
children are more socially capable and perform better academically
primary drives
biological needs
Albert Bandura
believed that personality is created by an interaction between the person (traits), the environment, and the person’s behavior
adrenal glands
produce adrenaline, which causes rest of body to go into fight or flight mode
function of endorphins
pain control involved in addictions
object permanence
objects continue to exist outside of visual rangestarts in sensorimotor stage (birth to about 2 years)
Gestalt therapy
developed by Fritz Perlsan existentialist approach to psychological treatment with the goal of helping the client become aware of his or her thoughts, behaviors, experiences, and feelings and to “own” or take responsibility for them
interneurons
in the brain or spinal cord, neurons that take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord
psychodynamic theorists
Carl Jung and Alfred Adler
aversive conditioning
behavioral therapypairing a habit a person wishes to break with an unpleasant stimulus
axon
wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body
Incentive Theory
behavior is not pushed by a need, but by a desire (incentive)
order effect
the order of the experimental/control group activities may affect the results. So if we were testing IQ and alcohol. Then taking 1 IQ test before alcohol and the taking another IQ test after alcohol, might produce results that state that IQ goes up with alcohol, because the subject had the practice of IQ test number 1 before taking test number 2. The problem of order effect can be fixed by counterbalancing. Having one person take the IQ test first and then alcohol, and having another person take IQ with alcohol and then take an IQ when sober
collective unconscious
unconscious passed down through the species explains the similarities across cultures contains archetypes
avoidant attachments (21%)
Mary Ainsworth’s baby experimentresist being held by the parents and will explore novel environment, don’t go to parents for comfort when they return
cognitive psychologists
examine human thought and behavior in terms of how we interpret, process, and remember environmental events
unconditional positive regard
a kind of blanket acceptance important in Carl Rogers’ self-theory
p value
the percent chance that the findings were due to chance
social cognition
how people think about themselves and the social world; more specifically, how people select, interpret, remember, and use social information to make judgments and decisions
pluralistic ignorance
“no one believes, but everyone thinks that everyone believes”
stage theories
theories in which development is thought to be discontinuousexample: Freud’s stage theory see developmental psychology chapter 9
prejudice
an undeserved, usually negative, attitude toward a group of peoplecompare: discrimination
transference
when patients begin to have strong feelings (negative or positive) toward their therapiststhe psychoanalyst sees this as a redirection of strong emotions felt toward people with whom they have had troubling relationships onto their therapists
rooting reflex
in born reflex for babies when touched on cheek, will turn head to put object in mouth
fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
displayed by children of mothers who drink heavily during pregnancy, small, malformed skulls and mental retardation are symptoms
crystallized intelligence
the ability to use knowledge accumulated over time, seems to stay the same or increase over timecompare: fluid intelligence
abstract reasoning
manipulation of objects and contrasting ideas without seeing themstarts in formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
visual cliff experiment
created by E.J. Gibson, used to determine when infants can perceive depth
negative symptoms
deficits in behavior, thought, or moodexamples: flat affect, catatoniacompare: positive symptoms
Whar are false negatives? Which theory explains false negatives
not perceiving a stimulus that is present
association area
any area of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements. These parts are used for thought and humor.
language acquisition device
the ability to learn a language quickly as childrenalso called nativist theory of language acquisition
Freud’s Thoughts on Sleep (f)
Freud thought that even during sleep, our ego protected us from the material in the unconscious mind (thus the term protected sleep) by presenting these repressed desires in the form of symbols. So showing up naked at school would represent a symbol in this type of analysis, perhaps of vulnerability or anxiety. This type of dream analysis is common. Check any bookstore, and you will find multiple dream interpretation books based on this theory. However, popularity does not imply validity. Researchers point out that this theory is difficult to validate or invalidate. How do we know which are the correct symbols to examine and what they mean? The validity of the theory cannot be
tested. Consequently, this analysis is mostly used in psychoanalytic therapy and in pop psychology rather than in research.
antisocial personality disorder
little regard for other people’s feelingscriminals have a high incidence of antisocial personality disorder
out-group
people of other groups, seen as more homogeneous than people of in-groups
self-serving bias
the endency to take more credit for good outcomes than for bad ones
dendrites
Part of neuron that recieves neurotransmitter messages
Global assesment functioning
used as fifth axis for psychologists examing client that pleads insanity. Scores range from 1 to 100. The higher the score the better functionality. global assesment of functioning measures overall level of functionality.
grasping reflex
object in hand or foot will grasp
paranoid personality disorder
feel persecuted
Max Wertheimer
a Gestalt psychologist
Portion Emission Tomography (PET)
measures how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain is using. Also the parts of the brain used.
sampling error
the extent to which a sample differs from the population
fovea
located at the center of your retina and contains the highest concentration of cones
primacy effect
Ebbinghaus believed that the order in which we memorize things influences if we are able to retrieve these memories.predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a listcompare: recency effect
idiographic theorists
oppose nomothetic theoristsbelieve that people need to be represented by few traits that best characterize them
implicit (nondeclarative) memory
unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have
zoophilia
paraphiliaattraction to animals
line of best fit
the line drawn through the scatter plot that minimizes the distance of all the points from the line. The slope of this best fit line can reveal correlation coefficient
case study
a full, detailed picture of one subject or a small group of subjects; not reflective of population, as a result findings cannot be generalized
idiographic theorists
oppose nomothetic theoristsbelieve that people need to be represented by few traits that best characterize them
preconscious
information abut yourself or your environment that you are not currently thinking about, but could be
lack of acetylcholine
Alzheimer’s disease
Hans Eyesenck
introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scale
correlation
a relationship between two variables without ascribing cause
state-dependent memory
recalling events encoded while in a particular state of consciousness, like sleepiness
defense mechanism
psychological strategies brought into play by the unconscious mind to manipulate, deny, or distort reality
covert behavior
Behavior that can be subjectively perceived only by the person performing the behavior. Thoughts and feelings are covert behaviors.
role theory
hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness; hypnotized people are just filling out the “role” of a hypnotized person
retroactive interference
learning new information interferes with the recall of older informationcompare: proactive interference
fetishism
paraphiliaattraction to objects
functionalism
Why we behave how we do? functionism differed from structuralism in that functionalism did not focus on the elements consciousness, funtionalism focused on the purpose of consciousness, and how this consciousness functioned in our lives. Functionalism used evolution to explain behavior. James referred to the stream of consciousness
biopsychology
explains human thought and behavior in terms of biological processes only
L.L. Thurstone
primary mental ability theory has seven main abilities: verbal comprehension, word fluency, number facility, spatial visualization, associative memory, perceptual speed and reasoning[THOR juggled SEVEN STONEs]
lithium
a metal used to trea the manic phase of bipolar disorder
parietal lobes
contains sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex)
active listening
empathetic listening in which the listener echoes, restates, and clarifiespart of Carl Rogers’ client-centered therapy
ego
follows the reality principlejob is to negotiate between the desires of the id and the limitations of the environmentexists in both the unconscious mind and the conscious minduses defense mechanisms to protect the conscious mind from the threatening thoughts buried in the unconscious
pedophilia
paraphiliaattraction to children
forebrain
controls thought and reasoncontains thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus
Aaron Beck
cognitive theorist who believes that the cognitive triad causes depression
Central Nervous System
consists of the brain and spinal cord nerves encased in bonecompare: Peripheral Nervous System
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
a sophisticated 3D magnetic field image of the brain. Same function as CAT, except more sophistcated and no x-ray
organic amnesia
when a person cannot remember things and there is a biological reasoncompare: psychogenic amnesia
Hans Eyesenck
introversion-extroversion scale and stable-unstable scale
contextual/practical intelligence
the ability to apply their knowledge to real-world situationspart of triarchic theory by Robert Sternberg
confounding variable
any difference between the experimental and control conditions, besides the changes of the independent variable
sucking reflex
object in mouth will suck
positively skewed
when a distribution has a high outlier, there are more low scores than high scores due to the outlier. This makes sense since the high score is considered to skew the graph. It is difficult to make times between outliers and mode, because mode is really not effected too much by outliers
discrimination
unfair treatment of a person or group on the basis of prejudice, this is a behavior compare: prejudice
effects of permissive parenting style
emotional control problems are are more dependent
seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
dissociative disorderdepression only during certain times of the year, usually winter
authoritarian parenting style
strict standards for their children’s behavior and apply punishments for violations of these rules
exhaustion (GAS)
parasympathetic nervous system returns body back to normal, more vulnerable to disease especially if resources were depleted
equivalent-form reliability
correlation between performance on different forms of the test
information-processing theory
more stress causes more dreams about your stress, dream content relates to daily concerns. The brain is dealing with daily stress and information during REM dreams and the function of REM may be to integrate information processed during the day into our memories
ectomorphs (thin)
according to William Sheldonfriendly and outgoing
sublimation
channeling one’s frustration toward a different goalviewed as a particularly healthy defense mechanism. Studying for 3 ap exams
state theory
theory that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness
fetal alcohol effect
less severe version of FAS, learning disabilities or behavioral problems later in life
ganglion cells
Ganglion cell’s axons make up the optic nerve. If enough cones and rods are stimulated, then the next layer of bipolar cells, called ganglion cells send the neural impulse to a specific region in the thalamus called the lateral geniculate nucleus.
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
second stage of psychosocial stage theorya toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently failure to do so causes shame and doubt
neologisms
a characteristic of disorganized schizophrenicsmade up words
A test may be reliable, but its results might not be valid
A test can not be valid if its results are not reliable
What kind of psychologists use “patient”?
psychologists with a biomedical orientation and psychoanalysts
Lawrence Kohlberg
- experimented on children regarding moral development using the Heinz dilemma - created three broad categories of responses: preconventional, conventional, postconventional
Klinefelter’s syndrome
extra X chromosomeminimal sexual development and personality traits like extreme introversion
situation-relevant confounding variables
differences between the experimental and control situations that may affect the experiment
three-box/information-processing model
sensory, encoding, short-term/working, long-term and retrieval
formal operations (12 years through adulthood)
fourth stage of Jean Piaget’s cognitive-development theoryabstract reasoninghypothesis testingmetacognition
motivations
feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal
set-point theory
the hypothalamus wants to maintain a certain optimum body weight
factor analysis
a statistical technique used to reduce the vast number of different terms we use to describe people to 16 or five basic traitsgroups the traits that correlate under a common factor. Factor analysis scans for clustors of traits and then represents these as factors. E.g. cleanliness, organization, punctuality, diligence might reveal conscientiousness
assignment
the process by which subjects are put into a group, experimental or control
consensus
how other people acted in the same situation
self-concept
a person’s global feeling about himself and herself
biopsychological (neuropsychological) theory of gender development
studies demonstrate that biological differences do exist between the sexeswomen have larger corpus callosums, which may affect how the right and left hemispheres communicate and coordinate tasks
alpha waves
relatively high-frequency, low amplitude waves produced while awake and in stages 1 and 2
survey method
kind of correlational research in which surveys are filled out; difficult to control for confounding variables, because surveys are mailed out and people take the survey at different times of the day, different places, take different amounts of time to fill out the survey. Surveys are a research method where the independent variable is not manipulated
unconscious
psychoanalyst idea– some unacceptable events and feelings are repressed from conscious mind to unconsciousdifficult to prove
treatment of insomnia
treated with changes of behavior:- reduction of caffeine/ other stimulants- exercise at appropriate times
inferiority
the fear of failuretheorized by Adler to motivate people
Panic disorder
High burst of intense anxiety without any appearant provokation.
stratified sampling
randomly sampling each strata (category of people, for example race or gender) of the population, so that the final sample reflects the population more accurately
frequency theory
place theory works for high frequency sounds, but not low frequencyhair cells fire at different rates in the cochlea
lateral geniculate nucleus
a place in the thalamus that receives impulses from the optic nerve
in vivo desensitization
behavioral therapya form of systematic desensitization in which the stimulus is actually encountered
anorexia nervosa
starving yourself to below 85% of normal body weight: vast majority are women
structuralism
the idea that the mind operates by combining subjective emotions and objective sensations (sensations meaning a stimulus’s effect on our senses)
developmental psychology
the study of how behaviors and thoughts change over our entire lives
conduction deafness
something goes wrong with the system of conducting sound to the cochlea
token economy
behavioral therapya type of instrumental conditioningdesired behaviors are identified and rewarded with tokens that can later be exchanged for various objects or privileges
social-cognitive theory of gender development
effects of society and thoughs about gender on role developmentgender-schema- messages about gender are internalized into cognitive rules about how each gender should behave
stroboscopic effect
Pictures presented in a series will look like a movie
