Barrons Psychology [Final] Flashcards
dendrites
Part of neuron that recieves neurotransmitter messages
axon
wirelike structure ending in the terminal buttons that extends from the cell body
myelin sheath
a fatty covering around the axon that speeds neural impulses
terminal buttons
also called: end buttons, terminal branches of axon, also called synaptic knobs branched end of the axon that contains neurotransmitter
neurotransmitters
chemicals contained in terminal buttons that enable neurons to communicate
synapse
the space beween the terminal buttons of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neurons
action potential
the local voltage change across the cell wall as a nerve impulse is transmitted
lack of acetylcholine
Alzheimer’s disease
function of acetylcholine
neuro transmitter motor movement
function of dopamine
motor movement and alertness
lack of dopamine
Parkinson’s disease
overabundance of dopamine
schizophrenia
function of endorphins
pain control; involved in addictions
function of serotonin
mood control
lack of serotonin
associated with clinical depression
afferent neurons
neurons that take information from the senses to the brain
interneurons
in the brain or spinal cord, neurons that take messages and send them elsewhere in the brain or spinal cord
efferent neurons
neurons that take information from the brain to the rest of the body
Central Nervous System
consists of the brain and spinal cord; nerves encased in bonecompare: Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System
consists of nerves not encased in boneDivided into two categories: somatic and automatic nervous systemcompare: Central Nervous System
Somatic Nervous System
controls voluntary muscle movementscompare: Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic Nervous System
controls the automatic functions of our bodydivided into two categories: sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systemscompare: Somatic Nervous System
Sympathetic Nervous System
part of the Autonomic Nervous Systemmobilizes our body to respond to stresscompare: Parasympathetic Nervous System
Parasympathetic Nervous System
part of the Autonomic Nervous Systemslowing body down after a stress responsecompare: Sympathetic Nervous System
Phineas Gage
a railroad worker involved in an accident that damaged the front part of his brain
lesioning
the removal or destruction of part of the brainexample: frontal lobotomy
frontal lobotomy
type of lesioining that was used to treat mentally ill patiens
electroencephalogram (EEG)
detects brain waves, used in sleep research
Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT)
a sophisticated 3D X ray of the brain
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
a sophisticated 3D magnetic field image of the brain. Same function as CAT, except more sophistcated and no x-ray
Functional MRI
combination of MRI and PET
Portion Emission Tomography (PET)
measures how much of a certain chemical parts of the brain is using. Also the parts of the brain used.
medulla
part of hindbraincontrols blood pressure, heart rate, and breathing
hindbrain
structures in the top part of the spinal cord, controls basic biological functions that keep us alive. These include pons, cerebelum, and medulla
pons
part of hindbrainconnects the hindbrain with the midbrain and forebrain, involved in the control of facial expressions
cerebellum
part of hindbrainlooks like smaller version of brain stuck onto the underside of brain, coordinates HABITUAL muscle movements
reticular formation
a netlike collection of cells throughout the midbrain that controls general body arousal and he ability to focus our attentionif it does not function, you will fall into a coma
midbrain
coordinates simple movements with sensory information contains reticular formation. Ex: if you move your head to the left, the midbrain coordinates with your eyes to keep your eyes focused on the text.
forebrain
controls thought and reasoncontains thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus
thalamus
part of forebrainlocated at top of brain stemreceives sensory signals from spinal cord and sends hem to the appropriate areas in the rest of the forebrain
hypothalamus
part of forebraincontrols several metabolic functions, including body temperature, sexual arousal, hunger, thirst and the endocrine system, which secretes chemicals
limbic system
made up of thalamus, hypothalamus, amygdala and hippocampus deal with aspects of emotion and memory
amygdala and hippocampus
hippocampus- arms surrounding the thalamus amygdala- structures near the end of each hippocampal arm involved in processing and perceiving emotion. The hippocampus is crucial for processing memory, Memory is not stored in the hippocampus
fissures
wrinkles in the cerebral cortex
contralateral control
each hemisphere of the brain controls the opposite side of the body
brain lateralization/hemispheric specialization
specialization of function in each hemisphere
corpus callosum
the nerve bundle that connects the two hempisheres; cut in split-brain patients
split-brain patients
patients whose corpus callosums have been cut, operation pioneered by Sperry.
association area
any area of the cerebral cortex that is not associated with receiving sensory information or controlling muscle movements. These parts are used for thought and humor.
frontal lobes
part of the cerebral cortexresponsible for abstract thought and emotional controlcontains: Broca’s area and motor cortex
Broca’s area
in the frontal loberesponsible for controlling the muscles involved in producing speech
motor cortex
in the frontal lobesends signals to muscles, controlling voluntary movementsbottom of cortex controls top of body and vice versa
parietal lobes
contains sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex)
sensory cortex (somato-sensory cortex)
receives incoming touch sensations from the rest of the bodybottom of sensory cortex receives sensations from top of body and vice versa
occipital lobes
at the very back of the brainimpulses from the right half of each retina is processed in the right occipital lobe and vice versa
temporal lobes
unlike occipital lobes, sound from either ear is processed in both temporal lobescontains Wernicke’s area
Wernicke’s area
located in temporal lobeinterprets both written and spoken speech
brain plasticity
the ability of other parts of the brain to take over functions of damaged regions. Declines as hemispheres of the cerebral cortex lateralize.
adrenal glands
produce adrenaline, which causes rest of body to go into fight or flight mode
Thomas Bouchard
Studied twins found high correlation between IQ of twincs that were raised in different house holds. Therefore found that IQ is somewhat genetic and a bit environmental. One critism of this experiment in that since both twins are identical they could be treated the same by their environment, causing the same effective psychological environment. Therefore environment not genetics would have caused the high correlation in IQ
Turner’s syndrome
chromosonal abnormality only one X chromosome in the 23rd pair causes shortness, webbed necks
Klinefelter’s syndrome
extra X chromosomeminimal sexual development and personality traits like extreme introversion
Down’s syndrome
extra chromosome on the 21st pairrounded face, shorter fingers and toes, slanted eyes set far apart, different extents of mental retardation
transduction
the process in which signals are transformed into neural impulses
Describe sensory adaption, sensory habituation, and ,cocktail-party phenomenon
Sensory adaption is the decreasing responsiveness to stimuli due to constant stimulation. Like you feel cold when you first get into a pool, then you stop feeling so cold. Sensory habituation explains the cocktail-party phenomenon, since the sensory habituation says that sensation is due partially to how much we focus on it. So if you are talking with your friend at a party, and someone across the room says your name, you will focus on them. This is called the cocktail-party phenomenon
cornea
a protective covering of the eye that initially takes in the light reflected by an object. Also the cornea helps to focus on light
pupil
dilates and becomes smaller to allow the right amount of light into your eye. The muscle that controls the pupil is the iris
lens. Process by which lens conducts its task
curved and flexible in order to focus the light through a called accommodation. Light is flipped upside down and inverted when it passes the lens.
retina
a screen on the back of your eye, where the inverted light is reflected. The retina contains specialized neurons activated by different wave lenghts
cones
cells activated by colorcompare: rods
rods
cells that respond to black and whiteoutnumber cones 20:1compare: cones
fovea
located at the center of your retina and contains the highest concentration of cones
ganglion cells
Ganglion cell’s axons make up the optic nerve. If enough cones and rods are stimulated, then the next layer of bipolar cells, called ganglion cells send the neural impulse to a specific region in the thalamus called the lateral geniculate nucleus.
lateral geniculate nucleus
a place in the thalamus that receives impulses from the optic nerve
blind spot
where the optic nerve leaves the retina, calls such because has no rods or cones
optic chasm
the place nerves from both eyes join and cross over within the brain
feature detectors
discovered by Hubel and Weisel, nerve cells in the brain that respond to specific features of the stimulus, such as shape, angle, or movement. Feature detectors are located in the visual cortex.
trichromatic theory
there are three types of cones in the retina (blue, red and green) that activate in different combinations to produce all the colors of the visible spectrumdoes not explain afterimages and color blindness
afterimage
an image (usually a negative image) that persists after stimulation has ceased
opponent-process theory
the theory that sensory receptors in the retina come in pairs. opposing retinal processes (red-green, yellow-blue, white-black) enable color vision. If one receptor in a pair is stimulated, its counterpart is prohibited from firing. For example, some cells are stimulated by green and inhibited by red; others are stimulated by red and inhibited by green. Explains colorblindness and afterimages. For afterimages, basically if you stare at red for a long time, you have fatigued this sensor, then when you look at a blank wall the opponent process (green) fires. For color blindness, opponent-process theory works, because of the whole idea that sensory receptors come in pairs, and dichromatic color blind people have difficulty seeing colors that are paired in accordance to the opponent-process theory. Therefore a color blind person would have difficulty sensing red and green or yellow and blue.
amplitude
the height of a sound wave, measured in decibels. The more amplitude the louder the sound or the brighter the color.
frequency
the length of the waves and determines pitch, measured in megahertz
order of sound in your ear
ear canal -> eardrum/tympanic membrane -> (3 bones known collectively as obssicles) hammer (malleus bone) -> anvil (incus bone) -> stirrup (stapes bone) -> oval window -> cochlea (snail’s shell filled with fluid) -> hair at bottom of cochlea -> organ of Corti (neurons activated by the hair) -> auditory nerve
place theory
hair cells in the cochlea respond to different frequencies of sound based on where they are located in the cochlea. Some hair bends in response to high pitches others due to low pitches
frequency theory
place theory works for high frequency sounds, but not low frequencyhair cells fire at different rates in the cochlea
conduction deafness
something goes wrong with the system of conducting sound to the cochlea
nerve (sensorineural) deafness
when the hair cells in the cochlea are damaged, usually by loud noise
gate-control theory
when a higher priority pain message coincides with a lower priority pain message, only the higher one will be felt. Endorphins and other drugs such as opiates like morphine swing the gate shut.
papillae
the bumps on your tongue that contain taste buds. Chemicals from food are absorbed by taste buds.
olfactory bulb. Difference between smell and all other senses in terms of the brain?
Gathers information from olfactory nerves and sends the information to the limbic system instead of the thalamus like all other senses. The limbic system is composed of amygdala and hippocampus
vestibular sense. How is it measured?
how our body is oriented in space. Three semicircular canals in the inner ear contain fluid that causes hair cells in the canal to move. These hair cells activate neurons.
kinesthetic sense
the position and orientation of specific body parts, because receptors in muscles send information to the brain
absolute threshold
the smallest amount of stimulus we can detect 50% of the time. This 50% is to account for other stimulation that might impede or indvidual variation
subliminal
stimuli below absolute threshold
difference threshold (just-noticeable difference)
the smallest amount of change needed in a stimulus before we can detect a changecomputed by Weber’s law
Weber’s law
the change needed to make a noticeable difference to something is proportional to the original intensity of the stimulus
Weber’s law for sight
constant for vision: 8%
Weber’s law for hearing
constant for hearing: 5%
signal detection theory
a theory predicting how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (“signal”) amid background stimulation (“noise”). Assumes there is no single absolute threshold and detection depends partly on a person’s experience, expectations, motivation, and level of fatigue. Signal detection criteria takes into account our response criteria
response criteria (receiver operating characteristics)
how motivated people are to detect certain stimuli and expectations for what they want to perceive
What are false positives? Which theory explains false positive?
when we think we perceive a stimulus that is not there
Whar are false negatives? Which theory explains false negatives
not perceiving a stimulus that is present
top-down processing
information processing guided by higher-level mental processes, as when we construct perceptions drawing on our experience and expectations. Use schemata to produce perceptual set. compare: bottom-up processing
schemata
mental representations of how we expect the world to be. Background information.
perceptual set
a predisposition to perceiving something in a certain way
bottom-up processing vs top-down processing
Bottomup processing is slower but more accurate. Top down processing is faster but prone to more errors
bottom-up processing (feature analysis)
we use only the features of the object itself to perceive itcompare: top-down processing
figure-ground relationship
A Gestalt principle of perceptual organization that states that we automatically separate the elements of a perception into the feature that clearly stands out and its less distinct background.
constancy
the ability to maintain a constant perception of an object despite changes in direct appearance that are attributed to changes in the angle of your view or light shining on it. Types of constancy include size, shape, and brightness constancy
stroboscopic effect
Pictures presented in a series will look like a movie
autokinetic effect
When you stare at a light for too long, the light will appear to move.
phi phenomenon
flashing lights will appear to be one moving light
visual cliff experiment
created by E.J. Gibson, used to determine when infants can perceive depth
Monocular Cues
Not dependent on two eyes
Binocular Cues
Depend on two eyes Binocular Disparity: Both eyes see objects with slightly different angles, brain gets both images. The closer the object becomes the more disparity. The farther the object is the less disparity between the images of the two eyes. Convergence: Eyes move closer to each other to keep focus as object gets closer to our face
Muller-Lyer illusion
demonstrates that some perceptual rules are learned from culture and not innate. Example of cultural learning of perspective is the use of angles in the architecture of your environment.
consciousness
level of awareness
mere-exposure effect
old stimuli are preferred over new stimuli, because on some level the old stimuli are remembered and known, regardless of consciouss awareness of the old stimuli. The unconscious might recognize the stumuli
priming
the activation, sometimes unconsciously of information, therefore predisposing you to a response
blind sight
some blind people can respond to visual stimuli because on some level of consciousness is able to “see”
conscious
the information about yourself and your environment you are currently aware of
nonconscious
The nonconscious controls your body processes such as heart rate and digestion.
preconscious
information abut yourself or your environment that you are not currently thinking about, but could be
subconscious
information that we are not consciously aware of but we know must exist due to behavior like priming and mere-exposure. Information in your subconscious affects how you process information and includes implicit memories. The unconscious is a term used mostly by psychodynamic theorists to refer to troubling thoughts that we have actively pushed out of our conscious minds.
unconscious
psychoanalyst idea– some unacceptable events and feelings are repressed from conscious mind to unconsciousdifficult to prove
circadian rhythm
a daily cycle of activity observed in many living organisms
sleep onset
the stage between wakefulness and sleep. Our brain produces alpha waves when we are drowsy but awake. We might experience mild hallucinations (such as falling or rising) before actually falling asleep and entering stage 1
alpha waves
relatively high-frequency, low amplitude waves produced while awake and in stages 1 and 2
Theta Waves
While we are awake and in stages 1 and 2, our brains produce theta waves, which are relatively high-frequency, low-amplitude waves. However, the theta waves get progressively slower and higher in amplitude as we go from wakefulness and through stages 1 and
sleep spindles? Which stage of sleep do most people spend time in the most
short bursts of rapid brain waves that start to appear in stage 2 sleep. People spend approximately 50 percent of their time asleep in stage 2. Approximately 25 percent is spent in REM, 20 percent in deep sleep (stages 3 and 4), and only about 5 percent in stage 1.
delta sleep/slow-wave sleep
stages 3 and 4’s other names due to the delta waves that exist during these stagesreplenishes the body’s chemical supplies, releasing growth hormones in children and fortifying the immune system. we move into stages 3 and 4, which are sometimes called delta sleep (also called slow-wave sleep) because of the delta waves that exist during these stages. The slower the wave (slow waves are low-frequency waves), the deeper the sleep and less aware we are of our environment. A person in delta sleep is very difficult to wake up. If you are awakened out of delta sleep, you may be very disoriented and groggy. Delta sleep seems to be very important in replenishing the body’s chemical supplies, releasing growth hormones in children, and fortifying our immune system. A person deprived of delta sleep will be more susceptible to illness and will feel physically tired. Increasing exercise will increase the amount of time we spend in stages 3 and 4.
rapid eye movement (REM)
As you go back through stage 3 and 2, right before stage 1 our brain produces a period of intese activity. The more stress we experience during the day, the more time we will spend in REM sleep. Lack of REM sleep interfers with memory. Dreams occur during REM sleep
REM rebound
individuals deprived of REM sleep will experience more and longer periods of REM sleep the next time they are allowed to sleep normally
Age’s effect on Sleep
age affects the pattern. Babies not only spend more total time sleeping than we do (up to 18 hours), they also spend more time in REM sleep. As we age, our total need for sleep declines as does the amount of time we spend in REM sleep.
insomnia
problems getting to sleep/staying asleep at nightaffects up to 10% of people
treatment of insomnia
treated with changes of behavior:- reduction of caffeine/ other stimulants- exercise at appropriate times
narcolepsy
periods of intense sleepiness and falling asleep at unpredictable and inappropriate timesaffects less than 0.001% of people
treatment of narcolepsy
treated with medication and changing sleep patterns (naps at certain times of the day)
sleep apnea
when a person stops breathing for short periods of time during the night- robs the person of deep sleep- causes attention and memory problems- Since these individuals do not remember waking up during the night, apnea frequently goes undiagnosed. Overweight men are at a higher risk for apnea. Apnea can be treated with a respiration machine that provides air for the person as he or she sleeps.
night terrors
feelings of terror or dread usually affecting childrenoccurs during stage 4 sleep
somnambulism
sleep walking usually occurring in children occurs during stage 4 sleep
manifest content
The first part out of two of dreamsL: literal content of dreams compare: latent content
latent content
the second part of dreams: the unconscious meaning of the manifest contentcompare: manifest content
Freud’s Thoughts on Sleep (f)
Freud thought that even during sleep, our ego protected us from the material in the unconscious mind (thus the term protected sleep) by presenting these repressed desires in the form of symbols. So showing up naked at school would represent a symbol in this type of analysis, perhaps of vulnerability or anxiety. This type of dream analysis is common. Check any bookstore, and you will find multiple dream interpretation books based on this theory. However, popularity does not imply validity. Researchers point out that this theory is difficult to validate or invalidate. How do we know which are the correct symbols to examine and what they mean? The validity of the theory cannot be
tested. Consequently, this analysis is mostly used in psychoanalytic therapy and in pop psychology rather than in research.
protected sleep
ego protects us from unconscious by representing everything in symbols
activation-synthesis theory
dreams are nothing more than the brain’s interpretations of what is happening physiologically during REM sleep
information-processing theory
more stress causes more dreams about your stress, dream content relates to daily concerns. The brain is dealing with daily stress and information during REM dreams and the function of REM may be to integrate information processed during the day into our memories
posthypnotic amnesia
people forget events that occurred during hypnosis
posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion that a hypnotized person have a certain way after hypnosis
role theory
hypnosis is not an alternate state of consciousness; hypnotized people are just filling out the “role” of a hypnotized person
hypnotic suggestibility
some people are more easily hypnotized than othersricher fantasy life, follow directions well, and able to focus intensely on a single task for a long period of time
state theory
theory that hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness
dissociation theory
created by Ernest Hilgardhypnosis causes us to divide our consciousness voluntarily; one part stays tuned to reality, another part to the hypnotist. In an experiment investigating hypnotism and pain control, Hilgard asked hypnotized participants to put their arm in an ice water bath. Most of us would feel this intense cold as painful after a few seconds, but the hypnotized participants reported no pain. However, when Hilgard asked them to lift their index finger if any part of them felt the pain, most participants lifted their finger. This experiment demonstrated the presence of a hidden observer, a part or level of our consciousness that monitors what is happening while another level obeys the hypnotist’s suggestions.
Ernest Hilgard
dissociation theory
psychoactive drugs
chemicals that change the chemistry of the brain and induce an altered state of consciousness
blood-brain barrier
thick walls surrounding the brain’s blood vessels that protect the brain from harmful chemicals
agonist
drugs that mimic neurotransmitters. psychoactive drugs are small enough to pass through the blood-brain barrier. These molecules either mimic or block naturally occurring neurotransmitters in the brain. The drugs that mimic neurotransmitters are called agonists. These drugs fit in the receptor sites on a neuron that normally receive the neurotransmitter and function as that neurotransmitter normally would
antagonists
drugs that block neurotransmitters. However, instead of acting like the neurotransmitter, they simply prevent the natural neurotransmitters from using that receptor site. Other drugs prevent natural neurotransmitters from being reabsorbed back into a neuron, creating an abundance of that neurotransmitter in the synapse. No matter what mechanism they use, drugs gradually alter the natural levels of neurotransmitters in the brain. The brain will produce less of a specific neurotransmitter if it is being artificially supplied by a psychoactive drug.
tolerance
a physiological change that produces a need for more of the same drug in order to achieve the same effect compare: reverse tolerance. olerance will eventually cause withdrawal symptoms in users. Withdrawal symptoms vary from drug to drug. They range from the headache I might get if I do not consume any caffeine during the day to the dehydrating and potentially fatal night sweats (sweating profusely during sleep) a heroin addict experiences during withdrawal. Dependence on psychoactive drugs can be either psychological or physical or can be both. Persons psychologically dependent on a drug feel an intense desire for the drug because they are convinced they need it in order to perform or feel a certain way. Persons physically dependent on a substance have a tolerance for the drug, experience withdrawal symptoms without it, and need the drug to avoid the withdrawal symptoms. Different researchers categorize psychoactive drugs in different ways, but four common categories are stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens, and opiates.
reverse tolerance
the first dose lingers in the body and enhances the effect of the second dose although it may be smallercompare: tolerance
depressants
drugs that slow down body processesexamples: alcohol, barbiturates, anxiolytics (tranquilizers/antianxiety drugs ex: Valium). lows down our reactions and judgment by slowing down brain processes. The inhibition of different brain regions causes behavioral changes. For example, when enough alcohol is ingested to affect the cerebellum, our motor coordination is dramatically affected, eventually making it difficult or impossible for the user to even stand. Because it is so widespread, more research has been done on alcohol than on any other psychoactive drug.
effects of alcohol
slowed down reactions and judgment, impaired motor coordination
stimulants
drugs that speed up body processes. including autonomic nervous system functions such as heart and respiration rate. This dramatic increase is accompanied by a sense of euphoria. The more-powerful stimulants, such as cocaine, produce an extreme euphoric rush that may make a user feel extremely self-confident and invincible. All stimulants produce tolerance, withdrawal effects, and other side effects (such as disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, increased anxiety, and heart problems) to a greater or lesser degree that corresponds with the power of the drug.
examples of stimulants
caffeine, cocaine, amphetamines and nicotine
side effects of stimulants
disturbed sleep, reduced appetite, increased anxiety, heart problems
hallucinogens/psychedelics
drugs that cause changes in perceptions of reality, including sensory hallucinations, loss of identity, and vivid fantasiesstay in body for a long timeeffects are less predictable
examples of hallucinogens/psychedelics
LSD, peyote, psilocybin mushrooms, marajuana
opiates
drugs that act as agonists for endorphins and reduce pain and elevate mood
examples of opiates
morphine, heroin, methadone, codeine
side effects of opiates
drowsiness, euphoria, physically addictive because they change brain chemistry quickly
classical conditioning
people and animals can learn to associate neutral stimuli with stimuli that produce reflexive, involuntary responses and will learn to respond similarly to the new stimulus as they did to the old onecompare: operant conditioning
unconditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.
conditioned stimulus
in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
conditioned response
an acquired response that is under the control of (conditional on the occurrence of) a stimulus
acquisition
the cognitive process of acquiring skill or knowledge
delayed conditioning
ideal training - neutral stimulus precedes the unconditioned stimulus, briefly overlaps.
trace conditioning
the presentation of the CS, followed by a short break, followed by the presentation of the US
simultaneous conditioning
neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus paired together at the same time.
backward conditioning
least effective- occurs when a conditioned stimulus immediately follows an unconditioned stimulus
extinction
the process of unlearning a behavior
spontaneous recovery
the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response
generalization
transfer of a response learned to one stimulus to a similar stimulus
discriminate
distinguish between various stimuli
John Watson and Rosalie Rayner’s experiment
taught little boy Albert to fear a white rat
aversive conditioning
conditioning to avoid an aversive stimulus
higher-order conditioning
a procedure in which a neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus through association with an already established conditioned stimulus.
learned taste aversions
If you ingest an unusual food/drink and become nauseous, an aversion to that food/drink will develop (can be based on a single pairing, as opposed to repeated)
salient
having a quality that thrusts itself into attention
Garcia and Koelling’s experiment
experiment showing how rats more readily learned to make certain associations than others
operant conditioning
type of learning based on the association of consequences with one’s behaviorscompare: classical conditioning
Edward Thorndike and his experiment
one of the first people to research operant conditioningPlaced cat in a puzzle box next to food; cat gradually became quicker at getting to the food
law of effect
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely
instrumental learning
what Throndike called his work because he believed consequences were instrumental in shaping future behaviors
B.F. Skinner
created the term “operant conditioning”created Skinner box
Skinner box
Named for its developer, B.F. Skinner, a box that contains a responding mechanism and a device capable of delivering a consequence to an animal in the box whenever it makes the desired response
reinforcement
anything that makes a behavior more likelycompare: punishment
positive reinforcement
the addition of something pleasant
negative reinforcement
the removal of something unpleasant
punishment
anything that makes a behavior less likelycompare: reinforcement
positive punishment
the addition of something unpleasant
omission training/negative punishment
the removal of something pleasant
escape learning
an organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation
avoidance learning
learning to avoid events or conditions associated with dreaded or aversive outcomes
shaping
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
chaining
in operant conditioning, combining the steps of a sequence to progress toward a final action
discriminative stimulus
in operant conditioning, a stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement (in contrast to related stimuli not associated with reinforcement)
primary reinforcer
an innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one that satisfies a biological need
secondary reinforcer
stimulus such as money that becomes reinforcing through its link with a primary reinforcer
generalized reinforcer
secondary reinforcer associated with a number of different primary reinforcersexample: money
token economy
An operant conditioning procedure in which people earn a token of some sort for exhibiting a desired behavior and can later exchange the tokens for various privileges or treats.
Premack principle
principle that a less frequently performed behavior can be increased in frequency by reinforcing it with a more frequent behavior
continuous reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs
partial-reinforcement effect
a phenomenon in which behaviors learned under a partial reinforcement schedule are more difficult to extinguish than behaviors learned on a continuous reinforcement schedule
fixed-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses
variable-ratio schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response after an unpredictable number of responses
fixed-interval schedule
reinforces a response only after a specified time has elapsed
variable-interval schedule
in operant conditioning, a reinforcement schedule that reinforces a response at unpredictable time intervals
instinctive drift
The tendency for an animal’s innate responses to interfere with conditioning processes.
contiguity model
a model that the more times two things are paired, the greater the learning that will take place
contingency model
Robert Rescorla’s revision of the contiguity model; the more times the presence of one predicts the other, the greater the learning that will take place
observational learning/modeling
studied by Albert Banduralearning through observation and imitation
latent learning
studied by Edward Tolmansometimes learning occurs but is not immediately evidenced
Edward Tolman
researched latent learningconducted experiment on three groups of rats running through a maze
abstract learning
Understanding concepts rather than learning to simply press a bar or peck a disk in order to receive a reward
insight learning
studied by Wolfgang Kohlerwhen one suddenly realizes how to solve a problem
Wolfgang Kohler
studied insight learningobserved chimpanzees suddenly learn how to get a banana
equipotentiality
any animal can be conditioned to do anythingopposite to instinctive drift
preparedness
biological predisposition to learn some things more quickly than others
three-box/information-processing model
sensory, encoding, short-term/working, long-term and retrieval
George Sperling
demonstrated sensory memory by flashing a grid of 9 letters for 1/20th of a secondalso: iconic memory
sensory memory
a split-second holding tank for incoming sensory information
iconic memory
a split-second perfect photograph of a scene
echoic memory
a split-second perfect memory of a sound
selective attention
determines what is encoded from sensory memory to short-term memory
short-term (working) memory
memories currently using and are aware of in consciousness- short-term memories will fade in 10 to 30 seconds if mused - capacity is limited to about 7 items
chunking
grouping items in about 7memory tool
mnemonic aids
memory aidsmemory tool
rehearse
repeatmemory tool
long-term memory
permanent storage
episodic memory
memories of specific events, stored in a sequential series of events
semantic memory
general knowledge of the world, stored as facts, meanings, or categories rather than sequentially
procedural memory
memories of skills and how to perform them
explicit (declarative) memory
conscious memories of facts or events we actively tried to remember
implicit (nondeclarative) memory
unintentional memories that we might not even realize we have
eidetic (photographic) memory
the ability to remember with great accuracy visual information on the basis of short-term exposure
Alexandra Luria
studied a patient with eidetic memory who could repeat a list of 70 letters or digits and remember it up to 15 years later
levels of processing model
- long/short-term memory doesn’t exist- instead, deeply (elaboratively) or shallowly (maintenance) memory
retrieval
two types of retrieval: recognition and recall
recognition
the process of matching a current event or fact with one already in memory
recall
retrieving a memory with an external cue
primacy effect
predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the beginning of a listcompare: recency effect
recency effect
predicts that we are more likely to recall items presented at the end of a listcompare: primacy effect
serial position effect (curve)
when recall of a list is affected by the order of items in a listprimacy effect and recency effect
tip-of-the-tongue-phenomenon
condition of being almost, but not quite, able to remember something; used to investigate the nature of semantic memory
semantic network theory
memories are linked to one another like spiderwebs
flashbulb memory
highly detailed memory of the moment and circumstances in which a piece of surprising news is heard
state-dependent memory
recalling events encoded while in a particular state of consciousness, like sleepiness
mood congruent memory
the greater likelihood of recalling an item when our mood matches the mood we were in when the event happened
Elizabeth Loftus
showed that recovered memories could be constructed or false recollections of events
constructed memory
may report false details of a real event or might even be a recollection of an event that never occured
decay
not using a memory or connections to a memory for a long period of time
relearning
after learning and forgetting, learning again becomes faster
interference
other information competes with what you’re trying to recalltwo types: retroactive and proactive
retroactive interference
learning new information interferes with the recall of older informationcompare: proactive interference
proactive interference
old information interferes with the recall of newer informationcompare: retroactive interference
anterograde amnesia
old memories can be recalled, new memories (except procedural) cannot be made
long-term potention
repeated firings between neurons strengthen the connection between them
phonemes
the smallest units of sound used in a languagecompare: morphemes
morphemes
the smallest unit of meaningful soundcompare: phonemes
language acquisition
natural unconscious process of language development in humans that occurs without instruction, but needs exposure1. babbling 2. telegraphic
language acquisition theory
the ability to learn a language rapidly as children
Noam Chomsky
language acquisition devicealso called nativist theory of language acquisition
language acquisition device
the ability to learn a language quickly as childrenalso called nativist theory of language acquisition
babbling stage
innate, represents a baby’s experimentation with phonemesafter this stage, the baby loses the phonemes unused in the primary language
telegraphic
second stage in language acquisitioncombination of the words into simple commands and sentences; meaning clear, syntax absent
overgeneralization
misapplication of grammar rules
linguistic relativity hypothesis
Benjamin Whorflanguage may control or limit our thinking- studies show effect of labeling on how we think about people, objects, or ideas, but do not show that language changes what we can think about
prototype
what concepts are based on, the most typical example of a particular concept
image
mental pictures created in mind, not necessarily visual
algorithm
a problem solving technique that guarantees the correct solution by trying every possibility
heuristic
a rule of thumb, generally but not always truetypes: availability heuristic and representativeness heuristicaffected by: belief bias and belief perseverance
availability heuristic
judging a situation based on examples of similar situations that come to mind initially
representativeness heuristic
judging a situation based on how similar the aspects are to prototypes the person holds in his or her mind
belief bias
illogical conclusions in order to confirm our preexisting beliefs
belief perseverance
tendency to maintain a belief even after the evidence we used to form the belief is contradictedcompare: confirmation bias
rigidity (mental set)
the tendency to fall into established thought patterns
functional fixedness
an example of rigiditythe inability to see a new use for an object
confirmation bias
the tendency to look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and ignore evidence that contradicts what we think is truecompare: belief perseverence
framing
the way a problem is presented
creativity
original/novel but still fits the situation
convergent thinking
thinking pointed toward one solution
divergent thinking
thinking that searches for multiple possible answers to a questionassociated with creativity
motivations
feelings or ideas that cause us to act toward a goal
Drive Reduction Theory
behavior is motivated by biological needsdoes not explain all behaviors, such as adrenaline addicts
need
one of our requirements for survival
drive
an impulse to act in a way that satisfies this need
homeostasis
a balanced internal state
primary drives
biological needs
secondary drives
learned drives
