crop sci le 1 Flashcards
Abaca
Musa textilis
Only in the Ph
Pili
Canarium ovatum
Only in the Ph
Kapa-kapa
Medinilla magnifica
Only in the Ph
Jade vine
Strongylodon macrobotrys
Only in the Ph
Mussaenda
Mussaenda sp.
Only in the Ph
Waling-waling
Vanda sanderiana
Endemic in the Ph
Lubi-lubi
Ficus pseudopalma
Only in the Ph
Duhat
Syzigium cumini
Indigenous to the Ph
Agricultūra (Latin)
ager- a field, cultūra- cultivation
systematic raising of useful plants and
livestock under the management of man
Agriculture
the entire system that links the producers and
consumers of food and non-food agricultural
products
Agriculture
Agriculture includes…
- Provision of Agricultural Supplies and Services (Technical assistance and Agri supplies: Fertilizers, Packaging materials, Pesticides, Seeds, Irrigation systems, Etc.)
- Production of plants for food and fiber
- Processing
- Trade, Marketing, Use
- Storage, Distribution
Agriculture in Changing Environments
Food - basic human need
Three out of four people - depend directly or indirectly on agriculture for their livelihood (developing world)
Changing Environments
- Urbanization and other land uses
- Decreasing amount of arable land
- Decreasing number of people engaged in agriculture
Changing Global Climate
- Drought
- Floods
- Tsunami
- Flash floods
Agriculture in Changing Environments
Challenge- enough to feed the growing population of developing nations
* Reduction in arable lands
* Reduction in number of people engaged in
agriculture
* Changing global climate
* Regional and Global Pandemic (COVID-19)
More PRODUCTIVE AGRICULTURE
Origins of Agriculture: When did agriculture start?
- Later than existence of man (Start of agriculture - 10-15T years before present)
Origins of Agriculture: Where did it start?
Independently in different areas
* China
* India
* Central Asia
* Near East
* Mediterranean
* Ethiopia
* Mesoamerica
* South America: Andes of Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile, Brazil, Paraguay
Origins of Agriculture: Why did agriculture start?
Theories
- Agriculture as a divine gift
- Agriculture as a discovery
- Agriculture as a result of stress
- Agriculture as an extension of gathering
Origins of Agriculture: What type of plants?
- Thrive in disturbed areas (open lands)
- Short life cycle
- High competitive ability
Origins of Agriculture: EVIDENCES
- Living Plants
- Archeological Finds
- Pottery
- Literature
- History
Elements to start agriculture
Plants, Man, Environment
Site of Human Civilization
The Fertile Crescent (Mesopotamia)
History of Agriculture
Hunting and Gathering
-> Cultivation and Domestication (Agriculture)
Cultivation – encouragement of growth
Domestication –selection of particularly useful plants by man
Plants Cultivated
- Cereals: source of energy
- Legumes: source of proteins
Cereals and legumes
Americas – maize and peanuts
Africa – sorghum and beans
Near east – wheat, barley and beans
Asia- rice and soybeans
Origin of some economically important crops: 1. India, Indochina and the Pacific Islands as centers of origin
Asian rice
Pigeon pea, Winged bean, Rice bean
Yams, Arrowroot, Taro
Coconut
Bread fruit, Orange, Lime, Tangerine,
Grapefruit, Mango, Banana, Plantain
Cucumber, Nutmeg, Eggplant
Jute
Origin of some economically important crops: 2. The Chinese center of origin
Asian rice, Proso and Foxtail Millets
Soybean, Adzuki bean
Turnip, Yams
Rape seed
Chinese hickory, Chestnut, Quince,
Persimmon, Litchi, Apricot, Peach
Chinese cabbage, Ginger
Tea, Ginseng, Camphor
Origin of some economically important crops: 3. The Near Eastern center of origin
Wheat, Barley, Rye, Oat
Pea, Chickpea (garbanzo), Lentil,
Lupine
Turnip, Carrot, Radish
Rape seed, Safflower, Flax, Olive
Fig, Walnut, Date palm, Almond,
Grape, Apple, Pear, Plum
Onion & relatives, Lettuce,
Saffron, Parsley
Origin of some economically important crops: 4. The African center of origin
African rice, Pearl millet, Sorghum
Cowpea, Hyacinth bean
Yam
Oil palm, Castor bean
Watermelon, Melon
Okra, Sesamum sp. Solanum spp.
Kenaf
Coffee
Origin of some economically important crops: 5. Mesoamerican center of origin
Maize
Amaranth
Phaseolus beans
Cotton, agave (“sisal”)
Origin of some economically important crops: 6. The South American center of origin
Peanut, Phaseolus beans
Potato,, Sweet potato, Cassava
Chili, Tomato
Peanut
Cotton
Cashew, Pineapple, Brazil nut, Papaya,
Avocado, Guava
Pepper, Squash
Cocoa
Facts and Figures
- World’s population, 2021
- People in poverty
- World’s population, 2050
- 7.8B
- 1B
- 9.2B
- increase in world population put pressure on agricultural lands.
balancing of the potential tradeoffs between economic and environmental objectives
Sustainable Development of Agriculture
are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure that all people enjoy peace and prosperity
The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) for 2030, otherwise known as the Global Goals
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
- 8000 BC
- 7000 BC
- 3500 BC
- 1000 BC
- 1ST CENTURY AD
- 14TH CENTURY AD
- Middle Stone Age (Food collection)
- New Stone Age ( Raising of crops)
- Bronze Age (Rise of centers of agriculture)
- Iron Age ( Early development of cultural
management practices) - No record
- Discovery of New World (Diffusion of agriculture)
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
- 14th – 17th C
- 20th C
- 40’s
- 60’s-70’s
- 80’s-90’s
- 21st C
- Agricultural revolution/Scientific method of agriculture ( plant anatomy, plant systematics, genetics/breeding)
- Technological changes in agriculture (new plant cultivars, improved crop nutrition, improved irrigation techniques)
- Basic research — agricultural chemicals
- Green revolution and CGIAR Centers
- SA, environmental concerns, integrated/alternative approaches in agriculture
- Biotechnology and GMOs
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND (detailed)
- 70’S
- 80’S
- 90’S
- Green Revolution (HYVs, High Inputs)
- Productivity Decline (Land Conversions, Soil Degradations, Climate Change, Chemical Pollution, Eroding Biodiversity, Water Distribution)
- Alternative Agriculture (Soil Health Conservation, Nutrient Cycling, Less Use of Chemical Inputs, Improved WUE, Varietal Resistance to Pests & Stress Environments, Minimum Tillage, Alternative/Integrated Pest Mgt., Alternative/Integrated Nutrient Mgt., Alternative/Integrated Crop Mgt., Crop Improvement, Water Management, Others)
STAGES OF PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE
- PRE-COLONIAL
- COLONIAL
- POST-WAR
PRE-COLONIAL
- Indo-Malayan migrants brought wet rice agriculture - carabao near bodies of water
- Slash and burn type - shifting agriculture
- Main Crops - Rice, corn, banana, coconuts Gabi, citrus ginger, clove
- No agricultural specialization - subsistence
agriculture - Private land ownership - did not exist
- Absence of surpluses
- Limited foreign trade
- Food scarcity in some settlements
COLONIAL
- Increased in agricultural production — surpluses produced
- Plant introduction— mulberry, cacao, wheat,
cucumber, cantaloupe, coffee, New varieties of
cereals and peas - Hacienda system — introduced
- Technological innovations in production and
processing — introduced
POST-WAR
- Introduction of technological improvement
- Establishment of IRRI in the 1960’s
- Development and expansion of international agriculture
- Exports: coco/by products, mango, banana, sugar and pineapple
PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURAL SITUATION: Facts and Figures
- Agricultural land area = 9.671 M ha
- Cropping intensity (cropping index) = 1.26
- Land-man ratio of about 0.20 ha lower than world average of 0.28 ha
- > 80% of agricultural area — planted to
three crops: rice, corn, and coconut - Generally small-scale and dependent on manual labor
- Farmers are heterogeneous: commercial, semi-commercial, subsistence, and landless farm workers
PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURAL SITUATION: Country’s Small-scale Commodity Production
- Dominated by farmers cultivating an average area of 1.5 ha
- Poor rice farmers toiling on large landholdings
CHARACTERISTICS OF PHILIPPINE
AGRICULTURE
- Low adoption rates of component
technologies - Heavy dependence on imported inputs
- Essentially monoculture
- Middleman-mediated marketing
STATE OF PHILIPPINE AGRICULTURE
- poor agriculture performance due to failed policies
- Inadequate infrastructure
- Declining competitiveness
- Deteriorating environment
- Continuing food imports
STRENGTHS
- Availability of expertise
- Basic institutions in place
- Rich natural resources
- Technologies are at hand or forthcoming
WEAKNESSES
- PHYSICAL: Climatic stresses, Soil erosion
- BIOLOGICAL: Insects, Diseases, Weeds
- SOCIOECONOMIC: Low family income, Inadequate support services, Inadequate incentives from the government, Middlemen-mediated marketing
OPPORTUNITIES
- Diverse agro-environment diverse cropping system
- Wide range of soils and climate growing different crops
- Whole year round growing period
- sunlight -11-13 hrs
- temperature- 24-32
- rainfall-2400-4000mm/yr
THREATS
- Population growth
- Deteriorating natural resource endowments
- Globalization
- Brain drain
- Weak governance
- Land conversion
FACTS AND FIGURES ON THE PHILIPPINE
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY (2023): Demography
Population Density: 405 people km-2
2025 population growth -1.5% (120.9 M)
2023 - 117.34 M
2020 - 112.19 M
2010 - 94.64 M
2000 - 77.96 M
1990 - 60.70 M
FACTS AND FIGURES ON THE PHILIPPINE
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY (2023): Geography
Area
Total - 300.00 M ha
Land - 298.17 M ha
Water - 1.830 M ha
FACTS AND FIGURES ON THE PHILIPPINE
AGRICULTURAL ECONOMY (2023): Geography
About 32 percent of the country’s total land area constitute the agricultural land. Of this, 51% and 44% were arable and permanent croplands, respectively.
Arable Land - 4.936 M ha
Permanent Crop Land - 4.225 M ha
Permanent Meadows/Pastures - 0.129 M ha
Forest Land - 0.074 M ha
Other Lands - 0.307 M ha
Cultivated plants grown for human food and
animal feed
crop
How do we identify/classify?
- taxonomic classification based on morphology, and other markers
- descriptive-based on environmental adaptation, growth habit, other observable features
- classification based on phylogenetic relationship
Agricultural Classification
- Useful vs not useful
- Vary from place to place
- Differences in the primary usage
- Intensity of care
- Extent of cultivation
Classification of Agricultural Crops
(food crops, non-food crops)
staple crops, cereal/grain, legume/pulses, root and tuber crops, oil seed crops, sugar and
sweetener, beverage, rubber, latex and gum, dye and tannin, fiber, pasture and forage, biofuel fruit (pomological) and nuts crops, vegetable (olericultural) crops, ornamental crops, industrial, plantation
Classification of Crops
- Manner of Culture (Agronomic, Horticultural)
- Use
- Climatic Requirement (Temperate, Tropical)
- Mode of Reproduction
- Length of Life Cycle
- Habitat
Classification based on Use
Cereals
Seed legumes
Fiber
Drug
Sugar
Oil
forage
Vegetables
Fruits
Plantation
Ornamentals
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Vegetable Classification by Family
- Cole Crops Or Crucifers
- Cucurbits
- Legume Vegetables
- Lilies
- Solanaceous
CCLLS
any of several ___ (as broccoli, kale, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, and kohlrabi) derived from the same ___ ___ (___ ___)
Cole crops: Crucifers
- brassicas
- wild cabbage
- Brassica oleracea
The ___, also called ___ ___ ___ ___ ___, are a plant family consisting of around a hundred genera, the most important of which are:
___ – squash, pumpkin, zucchini, some gourds.
___ – mostly inedible
gourds.
Cucurbits
- Cucurbitaceae
- cucurbits and the gourd family
- Cucurbita
- Lagenaria
refers to the plants whose fruit is enclosed in
a ___
___ refers only to the dried seed
Legumes
- pod
- pulse
any of several fruits of plants of the family ___; especially of the genera ___, ___, and ___
Solanaceous
- Solanaceae
- Solanum - tomato
- Capsicum - pepper
- Lycopersicon - eggplant??
any of a genus (___ of the family ___,
the ___ family) of erect perennial leafy
stemmed bulbous herbs
Lilies
- Lilium
- Liliaceae
Classification based on Special Purpose
Green manure
Catch
Cover
Companion
Trap
Soilage
Silage
GCCCTSS
Classification based on Special Purpose:
crops (usually legumes) grown for a
specific period and then plowed under and incorporated
into the soilto improve soil fertility
Green manure
Classification based on Special Purpose:
fast-growing crops grown simultaneously with or between successive plantings of a main crop
Catch
Classification based on Special Purpose:
crop grown primarily to provide ground ___ to improve soil properties, control erosion and or control weed
Cover
Classification based on Special Purpose:
a crop planted in proximity to another due
to the benefits it confer to the other plant (insect-repelling qualities)
Companion
Classification based on Special Purpose:
a plant grown to protect the main crop from biotic and abiotic factors
Trap
Classification based on Special Purpose:
forage crops which are cut when green and
succulent and are fed to livestock without curing
Soilage
Classification based on Special Purpose:
crops harvested, processed and stored in
succulent condition for feeds to livestock
Silage
- World’s most planted crop
- World’s most fecund crop
- World’s most popular crop
- World’s most revenue crop
- wheat, maize, rice
- sugar cane, sugar beet
- sugar cane
- cannabis, rice, cocaine, opium poppy
A discipline dealing with the scientific approaches to improve the quality of crops and their management for more economical production
Crop Science
Branches of Crop Science
Agronomy and Horticulture
- ___ word ‘ ___’ meaning ___ ‘___’ ___ ___
- Deals with the principles and practices of
managing field crops and soils
Agronomy
- Greek
- agros: field
- nomos: to manage
- ___ words ‘___’ – ___, derived from the ___word ___ ____ and ___ ___
- The concept of gardens or plants within an enclosure is distinct from the culture of field crops
- implies a more ___ cultivation of crops as contrasted to the ___ cultivation of field crops
Horticulture
- Latin
- hortus: garden
- Anglosaxon
- gyrdan: to enclose
- colere: to cultivate
- intensive
- extensive
Contribution of Related Sciences to Crop Production
- Weather (forecasting)
agrometeorology
Contribution of Related Sciences to Crop Production
- Improvement of heritable properties of crops
crop breeding/genetics
Contribution of Related Sciences to Crop Production
- Plant structure, processes/relationship with environment
botany
Contribution of Related Sciences to Crop Production
- Soil fertility and management
soil science
Contribution of Related Sciences to Crop Production
- Pests and their management
Plant Pathology/Entomology
Contribution of Related Sciences to Crop Production
- Structures/machineries, Water management, Crop processing, Waste management
Agricultural Engineering
Contribution of Related Sciences to Crop Production
- Production and marketing
Agricultural Economics
related sciences to crop production
agrometeorology
crop breeding/genetics
botany
soil science
plant pathology/entomology
agricultural engineering
agricultural economics
Development of Crop Science
- ___–> ___
- Establishment of agricultural ___ ___ ___
- Establishment of agricultural ___ ___ both ___ and ___
- Traditional; Scientific
- colleges and universities
- research institutions; national; international
National Research Institutions (NARs)
- PhilRice
- PCA
- SRA
- NTA
- NARC
- PhilFIDA
- PhilRoots
- NPRCRTC
PhilRice - Philippine Rice Research Institute
PCA - Philippine Coconut Authority
SRA - Sugar Regulatory Administration
NTA – National Tobacco Administration
NARC – National Abaca Research Center
PhilFIDA - Philippine Fiber Industry and Development Authority
PhilRoots - Philippine Root crops Research and Training Center
NPRCRTC – Northern Philippines Root crops Research and Training Center
International Agricultural Research Centers
- IRRI
- CIMMYT
- CIP
- ICARDA
- CIAT
- IITA
- BI
- ICRISAT
IRRI – International Rice Research Institute
CIMMYT- Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maize y Trigo
CIP – Centro de Internacional de Patatas
ICARDA – International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas
CIAT- Centro Internacional de Agricultural Tropical
IITA- International Institute for Tropical Agriculture
Bioversity International
ICRISAT- International Crop Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics
- Study of parts and functions in organisms
- In plants, basic physiological processes are
- ___
- ___
- ___
- ___
- ___
- ___
- ___
- ___ of plants define the interaction between genetic potential and environment resulting in growth, development and yield
- Knowledge of physiology should be/is utilized to improve crop production (___ and ___)
Physiology
- Photosynthesis
- Respiration
- Transpiration
- Translocation
- Mineral uptake
- Response to environmental stimuli or conditions
- Many other metabolic activities
- growth; yield
- ___ – produce their own food (___) through
___ - ___ mainly occurs in the ___
- ___ cells–>___–>___
Plants
- autotrophs; glucose: photosynthesis
- Photosynthesis; leaves
- Mesophyll: Chloroplasts; chlorophyll
Chemistry of Photosynthesis
1. ___ (small molecules ___)
2. ___ (___ CHEMICAL energy)
3. ___ ___ requiring process that uses ___ ___ and ___ to produce ___ ___.
give the formula for number 3
- Anabolic; combined
- Endergonic; stores
- Carbon dioxide (CO2); light energy (photons); water (H2O); organic macromolecules (glucose)
6CO2 + 6H2O + (light energy) → C6H12O6 + 6O2
carbon dioxide + water + light = sugar + oxygen
- The ___ has TWO membranes
- “bi-bilayer”
- ___ are sub-organelles where PS takes place
- ___ are stacked ___
- The ___ is the space surrounding the ___
- chloroplast
- Thylakoids
- Thylakoids; granum (grana plural)
- stroma; grana
Parts of the Chloroplast
- ___ molecules - found in the ___ internal
organs of the chloroplast and are embedded in the ___ ____ - act like a ___ ___ and absorb energy from ___
- Chlorophyll; green; thylakoid membrane
- light “antenna” ; sunlight
where does LDR of photosynthesis takes place?
where does calvin cycle of photosynthesis takes place?
- thylakoid membrane
- stroma
Requirements for photosynthesis
* 3 inputs from the environment that are required for
photosynthesis to proceed:
- ___ has a spectrum of varying ___ and emit
___ ___ - Photosynthesis is most efficient in the ___ ___ (___nm) and ___ ___ (___ nm)
- Sunlight/ visible light, Carbon dioxide (CO2), Water
- Light; wavelengths; different colors
- blue range - 425–450 ; red range - 600–700
How light energy is harvested by plants
___ ___ hits a ___ molecule; the energy from ___ is transferred from one ___ molecule to another resulting in ___ ___ to a ___ ___ ___
___ - clusters of ___ ___ (with
___ ___) that harvest light energy
- Light energy; chlorophyll; light; chlorophyll; electron transfer; primary electron acceptor
- Photosystem; thylakoid membranes; chlorophyll pigments
___ ___ ___ produce energy and reducing power that will be used in the ___ ___
The ___ of light reaction
- Light (dependent) reactions; Calvin cycle
- Z-scheme
3 major reactions in the Calvin Cycle
- ___ or Rubisco is the major enzyme involved in the
fixation or carboxylation in the ___ cycle. - Rubisco can function as ___ or ___
- Rubisco uses ___ as substrate if the ratio of carbon dioxide to oxygen is ___, however ___ ___ ___ is
increased when there is more oxygen in the ___ ___
- carbon fixation, reduction of 3-Phosphoglyceric acid (pga), regeneration of Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP)
- Ribulose-1,5-bisphospate carboxylase/oxygenase; Calvin
- carboxylase; oxygenase
- CO2; high; affinity for oxygen; leaf cells
___ is a process wherein ___ acts as an oxygenase to produce 1 molecule of ___ and 1 molecule of ___
___ is common under ___ conditions, where __ ___ increase ___ levels in the ___ cells.
For maximum photosynthesis, we want ___ to act as a ___ always
- Photorespiration; Rubisco; 3 PG (phosphoglycolate); CO2
- Rubisco; tropical; high temp; oxygen; mesophyll
- Rubisco; carboxylase
Photorespiration
* ___ ___ and ___
* ___ O2 and ___ CO2 oxygenase!
* ___ of RuBP yields 1 molecule of
___ and 1 molecule of ___, a ___ compound
___ of photorespiration is
stimulated by four factors:
1) high ___,
2) high ___,
3) low ___ and
4) high ___
Photorespiration loses ___ of the ___ it takes from the ___ cycle
It is a ___ process
- Rubisco; carboxylates; oxygenates
- 21%; 0.038%
- oxidation; 3-pga; phosphoglycolate; 2-carbon
- rate
1. light levels
2. O2 levels
3. CO2 levels
4. temperatures - 25%; carbon; calvin
- wasteful
How photorespiration leads to lower yields:
1. ___ of the ___ is lost during ___
2. metabolically-expensive reaction
* Uses up _ ___ and _ ___ for every ___
of RuBP
* Additional ___ of the amount of ___ expended on ___
3. Result in lower rate of ___ ___ production
because of lower ___ ___.
- 25%; carbon; photorespiration
- 5 ATP; 3 NADPH; oxygenation
- 50: energy; carboxylation
- dry matter; photosynthetic efficiency
___ is a wasteful
process and is exhibited by ___
plants!
Photorespiration; c3
Plants’ evolved means to avoid
photorespiration
C4 and CAM
pathways
Categories of Plants based on their Carbon Fixation Pathway
C3 plants and examples
because the first stable intermediate has three carbons (enter directly the Calvin cycle)
* rice, wheat and soybeans
Categories of Plants based on their Carbon
Fixation Pathway
C4 plants
*first incorporate carbon dioxide into four-carbon compounds before the Calvin cycle
* thousand species in at least 19 families including corn sugarcane, and important agricultural grasses
* This pathway is adaptive, because it enhances carbon fixation under conditions that favor photorespiration, such as hot, arid environments
c4 photosynthetic reactions occur in separate
cells
where?
C4 pathway or Hatch-Slack Pathway
mesophyll and bundle sheath cells
bundle sheath cells in C4 plants
– ___ ___ is confined to the ___ of the bundle sheath.
Mesophyll cells in C4 plants
- have an additional enzyme, ___ ___ ___
___ Anatomy in C4 plants
- Calvin cycle; chloroplasts
- phosphoenol pyruvate carboxylase (PEP carboxylase)
Kranz
C4 photosynthesis
1. ___ ___ enters the ___ cells
2. ___ is ___ thru the action of ___ ___ to form ___ ___ (OAA)
3. OAA is then converted to ___, which is an ___ ___
4. ___ is transported to the ___ ___ cells through the action of a ___ ___
5. ___ is released via ___ and enters the ___ ___.
6. Because of the ___ concentration of ___ , the ___ in the calvin cycle acts as a ___ always
Note: all plants have both the ___ ___ and ___ ___ reactions
- Carbon dioxide; mesophyll
- PEP; carboxylated; PEP carboxylase; Oxaloacetic acid
- malate; organic acid
- Malate; bundle sheath; malate pump
- CO2; decarboxylation; Calvin cycle
- high; CO2; Rubisco; carboxylase
light dependent; light-independent (Calvin cycle)
- Exhibited by plants that are growing in very arid, dry, and hot environments
- give examples
- Light and dark reactions are separated in ___
- ___ open at ___ to allow entry of ___
- __ ___ occurs at ___
- ___ ___ occurs in the ___
Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM pathway)
- Cacti, succulents, pineapple
- time (temporal separation)
- Stomata; night; CO₂
- C4 pathway; night
- Calvin cycle; daylight
CAM pathway - ___ ___ are separated in ___
photosynthetic reactions; time (temporal)
Comparative Adaptive Values
- Most efficient under ___ and ___ conditions and under ___ light
- Requires less machinery (fewer ___ and no ___ ___)
C3 plants
- cool; moist; normal
- enzymes; specialized anatomy
Comparative Adaptive Values
- More efficient than C3 plants under ___ ___ ___ and ___ ___
- Better ___ ___ ___
- ___ ___ brings in ___ faster
- ___ ___ ___ by transpiration for the same amount of ___ gained for PS
C4 plants
- high light intensity; high temperatures
- Water Use Efficiency
- PEP Carboxylase; CO₂
- Less water lost; CO₂
Comparative Adaptive Values
- Better water use efficiency than C3 plants under arid conditions
- a state where they minimize metabolic activity to conserve water, essentially going into “idle” mode.
In this state:
- Stomata remain closed during ___ ___ ___ ___ to prevent ___ ___.
- The plant can ___ internally produced CO₂ from respiration for photosynthesis without taking in external CO₂, which further reduces water loss.
CAM plants
- cam-idle
- both day and night; water loss
- recycle
Staghorn
Platycerium grande
Kahoy-dalaga
Mussaenda philippica
