Crash Course Key Terms Flashcards
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Humanistic Perspective
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Emerged form the pioneering work or Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Emphasizes the importance of self-esteem, free will, and choices in hhuman behavior.
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Psychoanalytic/Psychodynamic Perspective
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Emerged from the pioneering work of Sigmund Freud. Emphasizes the role of unconscious conflict in determining behavior and personality.
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Cognitive perspective
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Influenced by the computer revolution, the cognitive perspective compares the mind to a computer that encodes, processes, and stores information. cognitive psychologists emphasize thinking, perceiving, and information processing
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Behavioral Perspective
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Emerged from the pioneering work of Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner. Emphasizes observable behavior that can be objectively measured
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Biological Perspective
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Emphasizes genetics, the roles of various parts of the brain, and the structure and function of individual nerve cells.
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Evolutionary Perspective
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Influenced by the seminal writings of Charles Darwin. Emphasizes the role played by natural selection and adaptation in the evolution of behavior and mental processes.
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Experimental Method
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a carefully controlled scientific procedure involving the manipulation of variables to determine cause and effect. The method enables researchers to determine causes and effect relationships
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Independent Variable
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The factor that is manipulated or controlled by the experimenter
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Dependent variable
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The factor that is measured by the experimenter. It is affected by, and thus depends on, the independent variable
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Experimental group
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Group that is exposed to the independent variable
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Control group
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group that is exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable
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Confounding variable
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Variables that have an unwanted influence on the outcome of an experiment. Also known as extraneous variables
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Double-Blind Study
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A procedure in which neither the researcher nor the participant knows which group received the experimental treatment. Designed to reduce experimenter bias.
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Case Study
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An in-depth examination of a singe research participant
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Correlation research
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the researcher observes or measures two or more naturally occurring variables to find the relationship between them. In correlation research, the researcher does not directly manipulate the variables
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Correlation Coefficient
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A numerical value from +1.00 to -1.00 that indicates the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables. A Positive correlation indicates that the two variables move or vary in the same direction. A negative correlation indicates that the two variables move or vary in opposite directions. A zero correlation indicates that there is no relationship between the two variables
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Mean
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Measure of central tendency that provides the average score. Any change in the highest score in a distribution must result in a change in the mean
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Median
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A measure of central tendency that divides a frequency distribution exactly in half
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Mode
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A measure of central tendency that identifies the most frequently occurring score in a distribution
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Standard deviation
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a measure of variability that indicates the average differences between the scores and their mean
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Normal distribution
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a bell-shaped curve, describing the spread of a characteristic throughout a population. in a normal distribution, half the scores fall at or above the mean and half the scores fall at or below the mean
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Positively skewed distribution
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Contains a preponderance of scores on the low end of the scale. The mean will be higher than the median in a ____________.
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Negatively skewed Distribution
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contains a preponderance of scores on the high end of the scale. The mean will be lower than the median in a _________.
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P-Value
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the probability of concluding that a difference exists when in fact the difference does not exist. A statistically significant difference is a difference not likely due to chance. By consensus, a statistically significant difference is one that would show up only 5% of the time or less. The smaller the _______ the more significant the results.
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Neuron
a highly specialized nerve cell responsible for receiving and transmitting information in electrical and chemical forms.
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Myelin Sheath
a white, fatty covering wrapped around the axon of some neurons, which increases the rate at which nerve impulses travel along the axon.
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Action Potential
a brief electrical impulse by which information is transmitted along the axon of a neuron
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All-or-nothing law
The principle that either a neuron is sufficiently stimulated and an action potential occurs or a neuron is not sufficiently stimulated and an action potential does not occur.
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Endorphins
a chemical substance in the nervous system that reduces the perception of pain
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Neurotransmitters
Chemical transmitters manufactured by a neuron. For example, acetylcholine is associate with Alzheimer's disease, dopamine is linked to schizophrenia, and serotonin is related to depression
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Sympathetic Nervous System
Branch of the automatic nervous system that produces rapid physical arousal in response to perceived emergencies or threats
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parasympathetic nervous system
Branch of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, maintains bodily functions, and conserves energy
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Hypothalamus
Small brain structure beneath the thalamus that helps govern the release of hormones by the pituitary gland and regulates drives such as hunger and thirst
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Cerebral cortex
A thin surface layer on the cerebral hemispheres that regulates most complex behavior, including sensations, motor control, and higher mental processes such as decision making.
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Cerebral Hemispheres
the nearly symmetrical left and right halves of the cerebral cortex. The left hemisphere specializes in verbal and analytical functions. The right hemisphere focuses on nonverbal abilities such as art and music and visual recognition tasks
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Corpus Callosum
The bundle of nerve fibers connecting the brain's left and right hemispheres. In a procedure known as split-brain surgery, neurosurgeons cut the ___________ to prevent the spread of epileptic seizures by disrupting communication between the right and left hemispheres.
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Amygdala
An almond-shaped part of the limbic system linked to the regulation of emotional responses, especially fear.
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Hippocampus
A curved forebrain structure that is part of the limbic system and is involved in learning and forming new memories
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Absolute threshold
The minimum intensity at which a stimulus can be dectected at least 50% of the time. Ex: humans can barely detect a candle flame from 30 miles away on a clear, dark night
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Sensory Adaptation
The decline in sensitivity to a constant stimulus. Ex: the longer an individual is exposed to a strong odor, the less they are aware of it.
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Transduction
process by which sensory receptors convert the incoming physical energy of stimuli, such as light waves, into neural impulses that the brain can understand.
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Signal Detection Theory
States that sensation depends on the characteristics of the stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector. Selective attention enables you to filter out the focus on only selected sensory messages. Ex: while practicing your piano you don't hear your cell phone ring but if you are expecting an important call you will hear it ring.
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Gate-control theory
theory that explains how the nervous system blocks or allows pain signals to pass to the brain
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rods
the long, thin visual receptor cells in the retina that are highly sensitive to light, but not to color. The ____ are primarily responsible for peripheral vision and black and white vision. Cats have better vision than humans because they have a higher proportion of rods to cones
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cones
the short, think visual receptor cells, concentrated near the center of the retina, responsible for color vision and fine detail. People who are color blind typically have deficiencies in their ____.
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Blind-spot
The point at the back of the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye. Since there are no visual receptor cells, this creates a small gap in field vision called the _____.
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Cochlea
The coiled, snail-shaped structure in the inner ear containing receptors for hearing.
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Circadian Rhythm
Biological processes that systematically vary over a period of about 24 hours. Ex: sleep=wake cycle, blood pressure, and pulse rate.
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REM Sleep
Rapid Eye Movement. often referred to as paradoxical sleep because it is simultaneously characterized by active eye movements and loss of muscle movement.
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Hypnosis
A trancelike state of heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and intense focus. can be used to treat pain.
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Dissociation
The splitting of consciousness into two or more simultaneous streams of mental activity
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Classical conditioning
Based upon the pioneering work of IVAN PAVLOV. The learning process that occurs when a previously neutral stimulus (bell) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to elicit a conditioned response (salvation)
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Unconditioned stimulus
A natural stimulus (food) that reflexively elicits a response (salvation) without the need for prior learning
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Unconditioned response
An uncleared response (salvation) that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus (food)
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Neutral Stimulus
a stimulus (ringing bell) that produces no conditioned response prior to learning
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Conditioned stimulus
when systematically paired with the unconditioned stimulus (food) the neutral stimulus (ringing bell) becomes the _________ and causes a response
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Conditioned Response
a learned response elicited by the conditioned stimulus
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Extinction
The gradual weakening of a conditioned behavior when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
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Stimulus Generalization
occurs when the stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus also elicit the conditioned response.
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Stimulus discrimination
the ability to distinguish between two similar stimuli
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operant conditioning
a learning process in which behavior is shaped and maintained by consequences (rewards or punishments) that follow a response. in contrast, in classical conditioning behavior is controlled by the stimuli that precede a response.
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Reinforcement
strengthens a response and makes it more likely to occur.
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Positive reinforcement
A situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the addition of a reinforcing stimulus. The stimulus increases the probability that the response will occur again
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Negative reinforcement
a situation in which a behavior or response is followed by the removal of an aversive stimulus. ______ increases the likelihood of a behavior by enabling a person to either escape and existing aversive stimulus or avoid an aversive stimulus before it occurs
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Premack Principle
States that the opportunity to engage in a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred activity
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continuous reinforcement
a reinforcement schedule in which all correct responses are reinforced
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shaping
the technique of strengthening behavior by reinforcing successive approximations of a behavior until the entire correct routine is displayed
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Intermittent reinforcement
The rewarding of some, but not all, correct responses
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Fixed ratio schedule
reinforcement occurs after a predetermined set of responses. you are paid for every two lawns you mow
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Variable ratio schedule
reinforcement is unpredictable because the ratio varies. casino slot machines use a variable ratio schedule
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fixed interval schedule
reinforcement occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed. Paycheck every Friday
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Variable interval schedule
Reinforcement is unpredictable since the time interval varies. Unannounced pop quiz
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Punishment
a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated
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Positive Punishment
Adding an aversive stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur
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Negative Punishment
Taking away a stimulus that weakens a response and makes it less likely to recur
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Observational learning
occurs by watching others and then imitating or modeling the observed behavior
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Recall
the use of a general cue to retrieve a memory.
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recognition
the use of a specific cue to retrieve a memory.
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Serial-Position Effect
information at the beginning and end of a list is remembered better than material in the middle
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Episodic Memory
A subdivision of declarative memory That stores memories of personal experiences and events
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Proactive interference
Occurs when old information interferes with recalling new information
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retroactive interference
Occurs when new information interferes with recalling old information.
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Retrograde Amnesia
People who suffer from this are unable to remember some or all of their past.
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Anterograde amnesia
People who suffer from this are unable to form new memories
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Method of Loci
The process of remembering several pieces of information by mentally associating an image of each with a different location
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Phonemes
the smallest distinctive sound used in a language
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Morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in a language
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Algorithm
A logical, step-by-step procedure that, if followed correctly will eventually solve a specific problem
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Functional Fixedness
The tendency to think of an object as functioning only in its usual or customary way
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Confirmation Bias
A preference for information that confirms preexisting positions or beliefs, while ignoring or discovering contradictory evidence
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Heuristic
A general rule of thumb or shortcut that is used to reduce the number of possible solutions
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Availability Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on readily available personal experiences or news reports
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Representative Heuristic
Judging the likelihood of an event based on how well it matches a typical example or prototype
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Divergent thinking
A type of thinking in which problem solvers devise a number of possible alternative approaches. major element in creativity.
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Yerkes-Dodson Law
an optimal level of psychological arousal helps performances. When arousal is too low, out minds wander and we become bored. when arousal is too high, we become too anxious and "Freeze Up" people are thus motivated to seek a moderate level of stimulation that is neither too easy nor too hard
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Hierarchy of needs
Maslow's theory that lower motives (physiological and safety needs) must be met before advancing to higher needs such as an esteem and self-actualization
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Achievement Motivation
the drive to succeed, especially in competition with others. Individuals who have a strong need for achievement seek out tasks that are moderately difficult
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Extrinsic Motivation
Based upon external rewards or threats of punishment.
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Intrinsic motivation
Based upon personal enjoyment of a task or activity
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Display rules
Cultural norms that influence how and when emotional responses are displayed
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James-Lange Theory
Our subjective experience of emotion follows our experience of physiological changes "We feel sorry because we cry"
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Schachter-Singer Two factory theory
Physical arousal and cognitive labeling of that arousal produces our subjective experience of emotion
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Stress
an emotional response to demands that are perceived as threatening or exceeding a persona recourses or ability to cope
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conflict
Occurs when a person is forced to choose between two or more opposing goals or desires. Can be classified as approach-approach, avoidance-avoidance, or approach-avoidance
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General Adaptation Syndrome
Hans Selye's three-stage (alarm, resistance, exhaustion) reaction to chronic stress
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Longitudinal method
Measures a single individual or group of individuals over an extended period of time
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cross-sectional method
Compares individuals of various ages at one point in time
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Schema
a concept or framework that organizes and interprets information
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Assimilation
The process of absorbing new information into an existing schema
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Accommodation
The process of adjusting old schemas or developing new ones to incorporate new information
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Object Permanence
An infants understanding that objects or people continue to exist even when they cannot be directly seen, heard, or touched
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Irreversability
the child's inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events or logical operations
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Conservation
Understanding that certain physical characteristics (such as volume) remain unchanged, even when their outward appearance changes
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Permissive style of parenting
parents set few rules, make minimal demands, and allow their children to reach their own conclusions
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Authoritative
Parents set firm rules, make reasonable demands, and listen to their child's viewpoint while still insisting on responsible behavior
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Authoritarian
Parents set rigid rules, enforce strict punishments, and rarely listen to their child's point of view
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Psychosocial Stages
Erik Erikson's theory that individuals pass through eight developmental stages, each involving a crisis that must be successfully resolved
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ID
Completely unconscious. consists of innate sexual and aggressive instincts and drives. impulsive, irrational, and immature. operates on the pleasure principle, seeking to achieve immediate gratification and avoid discomfort.
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Superego
Partly conscious. Consists of internalized parental and societal standards. operates on a morality principle, seeking to enforce ethical conduct.
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Ego
resides in the conscious and preconscious levels of awareness. Rational and practical. Operates on a reality principle, seeking to mediate between the demands of the id and the superego.
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Defense mechanism
In Freudian theory, the ego's protective method of reducing anxiety and distorting reality.
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Repression
Freud's first and most basic defense mechanism. Prevents unacceptable impulses from coming into conscious awareness.
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Self-Efficacy
The feelings of self-confidence or doubt that people bring to a specific situation.
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Locus of Control
Individuals who accept personal responsibility for their life experiences have an internal__________. Individuals who believe that most situations are governed by chance have an external _____.
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Five-Factor Model
trait theory of personality that includes openness, conscientiousness, extroversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
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G Factor
the notion, proposed by Charles Spearman, of a general intelligence factor that is responsible for a person's overall performance on tests of mental ability
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Fluid Intelligence
Aspects of innate intelligence including reasoning abilities, memory, and speed of formation processing, tat are relatively independent of education and tend to decline as people age
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Crystallized intelligence
Knowledge and skills gained through experience and education that tend to increase over the life span
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Standardization
Establishment of norms and uniform procedures for giving and scoring a test
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Reliability
Measure of consistency and reproducibility of test scores during repeated administrations of a test
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Validity
The ability of a test to measure what it is designed to measure
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Self-fulfilling prophecy
observations or behaviors that result primarily from expectations
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DSM - Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders
classification system developed by the American Psychiatric Association used to describe abnormal behaviors
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Phobias
Characterized by a strong irrational fear of specific objects or situations that are normally considered harmless.
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Obsessive compulsive disorder
Characterized by persistent, repetitive, and unwanted thoughts and behaviors
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Post-Traumatic stress disorder
Characterized by intense feelings of anxiety, horror, and helplessness after experiencing a traumatic event such as a violent crime, natural disaster, or military combat.
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Bipolar disorder
Characterized by periods of both depression and mania
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Somatic symptom and related disorders
Characterized by physical complaints about conditions that are caused by psychological factors
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Schizophrenia
Group of sever disorders involving major disturbances in perception, language, thought, emotion, and balance. Delusional beliefs, hallucinations, and disorganized speech and thought are three characteristic symptoms
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Narcissistic personality disorder
Characterized by a grandiose sense of self importance, fantasies of unlimited success, need for excessive admiration, and a willingness to exploit others to achieve personal goals.
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Dissociative disorders
splitting apart of significant aspects of a person's awareness, memory, or identity. two or more distinct personality systems in the same individual.
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psychoanalysis
Freudian therapy designed to bring unconscious conflicts, which usually date back to childhood experiences, into consciousness.
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Cognitive therapy
therapy that treats problem behaviors and mental processes by focusing on faulty thought processes and beliefs
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rational emotive therapy
Albert Ellis's cognitive therapy to eliminate emotional problems through the rational examination of irrational beliefs
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Humanistic therapy
Focuses on removing obstacles that block personal growth and potential
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Client-centered therapy
Carl Roger's therapy emphasizing the clients natural tendency to become healthy and productive. Key techniques include empathy, unconditional positive regard, and active listening.
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Behavior therapy
Group of techniques that use the principles of classical conditioning, operant learning, and observational learning to modify maladaptive behaviors
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Systematic desensitization
a gradual process of extinguishing a learned phobia by working through a hierarchy of fear-evoking stimuli while staying deeply relaxed
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Aversion Therapy
uses the principles of classical conditioning to create anxiety by paring an aversive stimulus with a maladaptive behavior.
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Biomedical therapy
Uses of drugs and electroconvulsive therapy to treat psychological disorders
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Fundamental attribution error
The widespread tendency to overemphasize dispositional factors and to underestimate situational factors when making attributions about the causes of another person's behavior
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self serving bias
tendency for people to take credit for their successes while at the same time attributing their failures to external situations beyond their control
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Central route to persuasion
When people make decisions based upon factual information, logical arguments, and a thoughtful analysis of pertinent details. Example: you buy a cell phone based upon its price and number of available applications
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Peripheral route to persuasion
When people make decisions based upon emotional appeals and incidental cues. Example: you buy a cell phone based upon its color and catchy sales slogans
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Foot in the door phenomenon
The persuasion strategy of getting a person to agree to a modest first request as a set up for a later much larger request
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Cognitive dissonance
The state of psychological tension, anxiety, and discomfort that occurs when an individual's attitude and behavior are inconsistent
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social facilitation
the tendency for an individuals performance to improve when simple or well-rehearsed tasks are performed in the presence of others
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Social inhibition
The tendency for an individual's performance to decline when complex or poorly learned tasks are performed in the presence of others
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social loafing
the phenomenon of people making less effort to achieve a goal when they work in a group rather than when they work alone
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deindividuation
The reeducation of self-awareness and personal responsibility that can occur when a person is part of a group whose members feel anonymous
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Bystander effect
the tendency for individuals to be less likely to assist in an emergency situation when other people are present
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group polarization
the tendency for a group's predominant opinion to become stronger or more extreme after an issue in discussed
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groupthink
the tendency for a cohesive decision-making group to ignore or dismiss reasonable alternatives
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conformity
the tendency for people to adopt the behavior, attitudes, and beliefs of other members in a group
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Obedience
the performance of an action in response to direct orders of an authority or person of higher status
