control, punishment and victims Flashcards
Clarke
describes situational crime prevention as “pre emptive approach which relies on reducing opportunities for crime
Clarke identifies three features of measures aimed at situational crime prevention
- directed at specific crimes
- involve managing environment of the crime
- increases effort and reduces reward
examples of situational crime prevention
“target hardening” such as locking windows increase, efforts taking away coin metres reduces reward.
what does Clarke argue is needed to focus on
focus on immediate crime solution, not a revolution of socialisation
Felson’s example of a situational crime prevention strategy
the buses in New York were poorly designed and provided opportunities for deviance, for example the toilets were a setting for rough sleeping. reshaping the environment to “design crime out” greatly reduced such activity for example large sinks in which homeless people used for bathing were replaced by small basins
A03 for situational crime prevention
doesn’t reduce crime, simply displaces it, if criminals act rationally, they will respond to target hardening by going somewhere softer e.g. subway crimes moved to the streets
displacement can take several forms
spatial-moving somewhere else temporal- different time target-different victim tactical-different method functional- new method
example of situational methods
suicide from toxic gas were common, goal gas was replaced by the less toxic natural gas, suicides from gas went to 0- no displacement
A03 of situational crime prevention x3
- situational crime prevention reduces some crime but will be some displacement
- focuses on opportunities, ignores white collar crime.
- ignores root of crime such as poverty
Wilson and killing’s broken windows
term used for disorder such as vandalism, sends out a signal no one cares
what do neighbourhoods with the term broken windows lack
there is an absence of both formal social control (police) and informal control (the community)
what happens when there isn’t remedial action
the situation deteriorates, the neighbourhood goes into a spiral of decline and the area becomes a magnet for deviance
what are Wilson and kellings key idea
is that disorder and the absence of control leads to crime.
what are Wilson and kellings solution to “broken windows”
their solution is to crackdown. this means environmental improvement strategies e.g. repairs and zero tolerance policing by tackling slight disorder
evidence of environmental crime prevention
new York “clean car programme”- subway cars taken away when they had any vandalism, as a result graffiti dramatically reduced.
A03 of environmental crime prevention-zero tolerance
crime rates where already falling
fall in murder rate was due to better medical services
what do social and community crime prevention focus on
place the emphasis firmly on the potential offender and their social context
what is the aim of social and community crime prevention
the aim of these strategies is to remove the conditions that predispose individuals to crime in the first place
what reforms are suggested in social community crime prevention
poverty, unemployment and poor housing more general social reform programmes addressing theses issues may have a crime prevention role, even if this is not their main focus
what happened in the Perry pre-school project
experimental group of 3-4 year olds were offered a two year intellectual enrichment programme, during which children received weekly home visits. it was a longitudinal study that followed the children’s progress
A03 for Perry pre-school project
focus on low level crime
surveillance
“monitoring of public behaviour for the purpose of crime control”
the history of surveillance
during the 14th century plague, nominated individuals recorded those who had the plague to stop the spread
examples of surveillance
CCTV, biometric scanning, ANPR, tagging, data bases
Foucault- the birth of prisons
the birth of prisons opens with a striking contrast between two different forms of punishment
1. sovereign power- before the 19th monarch had power over bodies e.g. beheading
- disciplinary power- post 19th century governs not jut the body but the mind. surveillance is seen at more effective at controlling people
Example disciplinary power
panopticon prion. design where all cells were visible to the guard, but prisoners couldn’t see the guard. therefore, turns into self-surveillance as could be watched any time
what are a range of institutions that induced conformity through self-surveillance
mental asylums, factories and schools
how has disciplinary power dispersed through society
social workers
AO3 of Foucault’s theory
- exaggerates extent of control e.g. inmates resisting
- CCTV can’t be panoptic as it has no effort on crime apart from in car parks
- CCTV can be seen as ideological rather than protentional, giving the impression to the public that it is protecting them
what does Mathieson suggest about surveillance
media also enables the many to watch the few-everybody watches everybody.
what does Thompson argue about surveillance
politicians fear media surveillance which acts as a form of social control.
what results self discipline
dashcams, mobile phone recordings
what does widespread cam era ownership mean
this means that society controls the controllers e.g. record police
what are the hierarchies of surveillance
power to confiscate videos
what do Haggerty and Ericson suggest about surveillance
surveillance now involves manipulations of different objects
what do feely and Simon suggest about surveillance
a new technology of power is emerging
how do feely and Simon differ from Foucault
- focuses on groups, not individuals
- not interested in rehabilitation
- uses “actual analysis” often by the insurance industry, risk of particular events happening.
what does Durkheim say is the purpose of “social sorting”
categorise people so they can be treated differently according to the level of risk they pose
what is categorical suspicion
place under wrong doing because they belong to a group e.g. Birmingham counter terrorism
what does categorise suspicion result in
danger of a self-fulfilling prophecy
what did Norris and Armstrong find out about CCTV surveillance
research shows that CCTV operators make discriminatory judgement of potential suspects e.g. black males
what are judgements on by those operating surveillance systems
based on “typifications”, criminalisation of others lessened
ways that punishments prevent future crime
deterrence, rehabilitation and in capitation
is reduction (Punishment) instrumental or expressive
instrumental, namely crime reduction
what is deterrence
“making an example” may also serve as a deterrent to the public at large. e.g. Margret Thatcher’s “short, Sharpe shock”
what is rehabilitation
reform prisoners so they no longer offend e.g. anger management
incapacitation
remove the offenders capacity to offend, America 3 strikes and out
AO3 for crime reduction/ prevention
half of all prisoners re-offend
is retribution (punishment) instrumental or expressive
expressive, expresses societies outrage
what is retribution
the idea that offenders deserve to be punished and society can seek revenge for breaking moral code
what does Durkheim argue about the function of punishment
argues that punishment upholds social solidarity, reinforces shared values. punishment is expressive-moral outrage.
two types of justice
retributive
restitutive
retributive
in traditional society, solidarity is based on similarities- this results in a strong collective conscience. when offend respond with severe expressive punishment
restitutive
in modern society, society is based on interdependence. restitution is to restore things to how they were.
A03 of retributive
traditional societies also had retributive. clan kills settled by compensation
what do Marxists believe is the function of crime
maintain social order. “repressive state apparatus”-means of defending ruling class property against the lower class
what do Melossi and pavarini believe about prisons
prison reflects relations of productions e.g. “do time” “pay for crime”, -similar liberty in the workplace
before the 18th century what were prisons like
prisons used to hold people before their punishment e.g. execution.
when were prisons seen as a punishment
following enlightenment, prison seen as punishment “reformed”
in liberal democracies what do they see prisons as
severe punishments
why haven’t prisoners proved an effective method of rehabilitation
2\3 of prisoners reoffend
what does Garland believe Americas are moving towards
USA moving towards mass incarceration
statistics about Black Americans in prisons
black Americans 13% of Us population but make 37% of prison population
transcarceration
individuals become locked into a cycle of control, shifting between different carceral agencies
example of transcarceration
care-young offenders institution-adult prisons- mental asylum
in the past how did they deal with young offenders
goals to divert young offenders from the criminal justice system. e.g. probation
examples of community based controls
there has been a growth in community based control- curfew, tagging
what does Cohen argue about community based controls
the growth of community controls have led to “net of control. increased role of sanctions enables controls to deepen
have community controls diverted young offenders from the criminal justice system
community controls may divert young people into it. for example, ASBOS-fast tracking young offenders into custodial sentences
victims
suffered harm (physical, mental, economic or emotional)
what does Christie suggest about a victim
the definition is socially constructed, stereotype of victim by the media such as old woman
what is victimology
study of victims
what three features does positivist victimology have-Miers
- aim to identify factors that produce pattern e.g. groups more likely
- focuses on inter personal crimes of violence
- identifies victims who have contributed to their own victimisation
victim proneness
social/psychological traits that makes them more vulnerable
what did Hentig identify
13 traits of a victim e.g. females, elderly, display valuables- “incite victimisation”
an example of positivist victimology
Wolfgang-588 homicides 26% involved victim precipitation- the victim triggered the events such as visiting violence first
evaluation of positivist criminology
- (green) shows the importance of victim, is a matter of chance who becomes the victim
- (red) ignores wider factors such as poverty
- (red) victim blaming
critical victimology
based conflict theorists such as Marxists and feminists
what two elements does critical victimology focus on
- structural factors and 2. state power
what are structural factors
such as patriarchy and poverty, place powerless groups at risk of victimisation, victimisation is a form of structural powerless ness
what is state power
the state applies the label of a criminal but withholds it from others
what example of state crime with labelling do Tombs and Whyte
“safety crime” death or injury to workers explained as “accident prone” and rape victims are blamed
de-labelling
hides crime of the powerful
“hierarchy of victimisation”
powerless most likely to be victimised but least likely to be acknowledged
evaluation of critical victimology
- (red) disregards roles victims might play on bringing crime on themselves
- -(green) valuables in showing that victim status is constructed by power
patterns of victimisation-class
crime rates highest in areas of deprivation
homeless people 12x more likely to be victims of violence
patterns of victimisation-age
most at risk of murder under one
teens more valuable to sexual abuse/ theft
patterns of victimisation-ethnicity
minority groups are more at risk of hate crimes
patterns of victimisation-gender
males at greater risk of violent crime
what emotional and psychical impacts does crime have
disrupted sleep, helplessness, social functioning
what can crime create
indirect victims e.g. witnesses of sniper victims
what do hate crimes spread to
the whole community
secondary victimisation
victims further suffering from victimisation at the hands of the criminal justice system e.g. rape victims
fear of victimisation
the fear is irrational- men more likely to be victims of violence, but women fear going out
