Contemporary Urban Environments Flashcards
1
Q
What is urbanisation?
A
The increase in the proportion of people moving to urban areas.
2
Q
What are the global patterns of urbanisation?
A
HICs have high proportions of urban population that are increasing very slowly.
LICs have lower proportions of urban population but are increasing very quickly.
3
Q
What are the four processes that affect the population of cities?
A
Urbanisation
Suburbanisation
Counter-urbanisation
Urban Resurgence
4
Q
What is suburbanisation?
A
The migration of people from city centres to the outskirts of cities.
5
Q
What are some reasons for suburbanisation?
A
City centres become overcrowded and so people want more space.
Improvements to transport links means that people can live further away and still commute to work.
6
Q
What is counter-urbanisation?
A
The movement of people out of the city into surrounding villages and rural areas.
7
Q
What are some reasons for counter-urbanisation?
A
Improvements to transport means that people can commute to work easier and internet access allows people to work from home.
Overcrowding in cities.
8
Q
What is urban resurgence?
A
Movement of people back to the city centre.
9
Q
What are some reasons for urban resurgence?
A
There may be a lack of jobs in rural areas.
There may be new developments such as high quality housing or sporting facilities.
New shops and services may open in the city as people move back.
10
Q
What is a megacity?
A
A city with a population of over 10 million people.
11
Q
What is decentralisation?
A
A shift in the change of decision making from planners with the movement of commercial, retail and industry away from urban centres.
12
Q
What four government policies have been used to regenerate cities since 1979?
A
Urban Development Corporations (1979 - 1990s)
Enterprise Zones (1981 - present)
City Challenge (1991 - 1997)
Partnership Schemes (2010 - present)
13
Q
What is an urban development corporation (UDC)?
A
A scheme which uses private sector funding to restore derelict areas.
14
Q
Where were the first two UDCs?
A
London Docklands and Liverpool.
15
Q
What were the aims of UDCs?
A
To attract new businesses, improve the local environment, create jobs and build new houses.
16
Q
How many houses and jobs were created as part of the UDC?
A
24,000 new homes and 85,000 new jobs.
17
Q
What were criticisms of UDC?
A
They ignored the needs of local residents such as affordable homes and suitable jobs.
18
Q
What is an enterprise zone (EZ)?
A
Enterprise zones are areas set up in areas with high unemployment with an aim to attract start-up companies to the area to create jobs.
19
Q
How did EZs encourage start-up companies?
A
They reduced tax on corporations and land.
20
Q
By 1990, how many companies and jobs were created by EZs?
A
5,000 companies and 125,000 jobs.
21
Q
What was the problem with EZs?
A
Existing companies moved their premises and staff to the the EZs which limited the number of new jobs created.
22
Q
What is a city challenge?
A
Local authorities compete for government funding to regenerate deprived urban areas.
23
Q
What projects were funded during the city challenge?
A
Improving housing, providing training and creating jobs.
24
Q
How many jobs were created and how many houses were improved during the city challenge?
A
50,000 jobs and 40,000 houses.
25
What were the criticisms with City Challenge?
Many deprived areas didn't receive any funding.
26
What are partnership schemes?
When the government works with private companies to provide financial support and expertise for urban regeneration.
27
What do partnership schemes aim to do?
Improve physical, economic and social conditions in deprived areas by building new homes, parks, sports centres and reducing unemployment.
28
What is urban form?
The physical characteristics that make up a city which includes its size, shape, population density and how the city is arranged.
29
What are the two types of factors that affect urban form?
Physical factors
Human factors
30
What are examples of physical factors?
Topography
Water
Natural resources
Land Type
31
What are examples of human factors of urban form?
Planning
Infrastructure
Land Value
32
How does topography affect urban form?
Physical features affect the growth of cities.
For example, steep slopes are harder to build on so poorer quality housing may be built on them.
33
What are land use patterns in the developed world?
There is a central business district (CBD).
The CBD is surrounded by housing. Although land value tends to be highest in the city centre, houses generally increase in value with distance away from the city centre.
As the land in semi-rural areas is cheap, many science parks and shopping centres are constructed there.
34
What are housing patterns in the developed world?
Inner city areas have high land value so high density housing (skyscrapers) are built. Wages are low and many residents live in poverty. The proportion of people from ethnic minorities tends to be high.
Land value is lower in rural and semi rural areas so residential areas are less dense and there is more open space. Houses are larger and newer than the ones in inner city areas. Residents are generally wealthy and earn higher wages. The proportion of people from ethnic minorities tends to be low.
35
What are land use patterns in the developing world?
Cities have a CBD.
The CBD is surrounded by housing which decreases in value with distance away from the centre.
Industrial areas are located along transport links.
36
What are housing patterns in the developing world?
Land value is highest around the city centre so high cost housing is built there. Wages are high with wealthy residents. These are home to wealthy immigrants from developed countries.
Surrounding the high-cost housing there is medium cost housing. These usually start as an informal settlement but the housing has been improved and services added.
Land value is very low on the outskirts of cities so low-cost, informal housing is built there. These areas have little access to services and very poorly paid jobs.
37
What are five main types of urban areas?
Town Centre Mixed Developments
Cultural and Heritage Quarters
Fortress Developments
Gentrified Areas
Edge Cities
38
What is a Town Centre Mixed Development?
These are areas where land use is mixed so residential, commercial and leisure uses are combined.
Developments are planned by local councils, often with private investment. The aim is to attract people back to city centres.
39
What is a cultural and heritage quarter?
These areas focus on the history or character of a city. These areas are home to theatres, art galleries and historical buildings.
These are often developed by local councils to regenerate former industrial areas. They attract tourists and encourage development.
40
What is a fortress development?
These are developments with lots of security such as CCTV, guards and high walls.
They are designed to give a safe environment for families but they are very divisive as only rich people can afford to live there.
41
What is a gentrified area?
Gentrification is when wealthier people move into rundown inner city areas and regenerate them by improving housing.
They often have a large range of services but poorer residents are displaced from the area as the cost of living increases.
42
What is an edge city?
Edge cities are new areas of offices, shops and leisure facilities that develop close to major transport links where land is cheaper.
They often contain some housing but many people travel to them for work or to use the services available.
43
What are five features of a post-modern city?
Multiple centres with different purposes.
A focus on the tertiary and quaternary industry.
Less uniform architecture - buildings have a wide range of styles.
Planning prioritises the aesthetics of the city over practical use.
Higher social and economic inequality.
44
What is economic inequality?
The unequal distribution of money amongst a population.
45
Describe the pattern of economic inequality.
Economic inequalities are higher in the developing world than in developed countries.
46
What issues can economic inequality cause?
Political and social unrest.
A rise in crime, drug use and violence.
Health problems.
47
What issues can cultural diversity cause?
Tensions between different groups, sometimes leading to violence.
Increased pressure on services. For example, schools may need extra staff for pupils who can't speak the native language.
Minority communities can feel isolated and under-represented politically.
48
What is social segregation?
When different groups are separated from each other.
49
What issues can social segregation cause?
Prejudice and discrimination.
Lack of access to education and jobs.
Anxiety and negative impacts on health and life expectancy.
Lack of access to facilities.
50
What are some strategies to reduce poverty and economic inequalities?
Improving transport systems can make it easier to access jobs.
Subsidising the construction of affordable housing can help poorer people to buy property.
Introducing minimum wages can help stabilise wage inequalities between the rich and poor.
Governments can offer subsidies for new companies, increasing local employment opportunities.
51
What strategies can be used to encourage social and cultural integration?
Governments can encourage political participation of minority groups.
Governments can pass laws. For example to prevent companies discriminating based on race.
New developments can include luxury homes and lower-cost housing reducing divisions between the rich and poor.
Communities can help ease racial tension. For example, involving different groups in projects to clean off racist graffiti.
52
What is the income in Kensington and Chelsea and Newham?
Kensington and Chelsea - £130,000
Newham - £35,000
53
What are the percentages of ethnic minorities in Brent and Havering?
Brent - Over 60%
Havering - 16%
This shows that social segregation is an issue.
54
How many anti-muslim incidents were there in a year in London?
800.
55
What is London doing to try and reduce social and economic inequality?
It has increased the London Living Wage to £9.75 per hour compared to £8.45 in the rest of the country.
More affordable homes are being built to reduce social segregation.
The police are working to tackle hate crime.
56
How much more money does Sao Paulo's richest 10% earn compared to the poorest 10%?
40 times.
57
Where do rich and poor people live in Sao Paulo?
80,000 poor people live in the largest slum (favela) Paraisópolis.
The wealthier residents live in the southwest of Sao Paulo.
58
What steps has Sao Paulo taken to reduce social and economic inequality?
The minimum wage was raised by 12% to increase income.
In 2001, a law was passed that recognised favelas as legitimate residential areas. This led to an increase in investment.
10,000 new homes are being built to replace slum housing.
59
What is the urban heat island effect?
Urban areas are warmer than rural areas.
60
What are the four main causes of the urban heat island effect?
Absorption of heat by urban surfaces.
Air pollution.
Heat from human activity.
Less evapotranspiration.
61
How does absorption of heat by urban surfaces cause the UHI effect?
Urban surfaces have a low albedo which means they absorb lots of energy. They then release this energy which is most noticeable at night.
62
How does air pollution cause the UHI effect?
Air pollution causes increased cloud cover over the city.
There is a layer of pollution over the city.
This traps heat radiation.
63
What is the relationship between rain and urban areas?
Rain is more frequent and more intense in urban areas.
64
Why is rain more frequent or intense in urban areas?
1) The UHI effect means that air temperatures are warmer which means it can hold more water. The warm, moist air rises, condenses and falls as rain. This is called convectional rainfall.
2) Urban areas have higher amounts of pollution and dust. These act as condensation nuclei and encourage clouds to form.
65
What are the three sources of urban waste?
Industrial waste
Commercial waste
Personal waste.
66
What is industrial waste?
Any waste that is produced in the manufacturing process or from industrial activity.
It includes scrap metal, solvents and chemicals which can be toxic or corrosive.
67
What is commercial waste?
Any waste that is produced by businesses.
This waste includes food, paper, cardboard and plastics.
68
What is personal waste?
Any waste produced by private homes.
This includes plastic bottles, food packaging, newspapers, food waste.
69
What is a waste stream?
The flow of waste from its origin through to its eventual disposal.
70
What are the three main factors that affect waste streams?
Economic characteristics
Lifestyles
Attitudes
71
How do economic characteristics affect waste streams?
As people get richer, they tend to consume more goods and produce more waste.
72
How does lifestyle affect waste streams?
Urban dwellers produce more waste than rural areas.
Rural areas produce more organic waste whereas urban areas produce more manufactured waste.
Diet and the amount of processed food consumed affects waste.
73
How do attitudes affect waste streams?
Many developed countries have a throw away culture.
People who care more about the environment are more likely to recycle.
74
What are the seven ways to manage urban waste?
Unregulated
Recycling
Incineration
Recovery
Burial (Landfill)
Submergence
Trade
75
What is unregulated waste management?
Waste is dumped in places that aren't official disposal sites.
For example, solid waste left on the street or untreated liquid waste entering rivers.
76
What are the environmental effects of unregulated waste?
Aquatic animals can ingest pollutants in the water.
Animals can be harmed by swallowing waste.
77
What is recycling?
Waste is reprocessed into new products.
78
What are the environmental effects of recycling?
Demand for raw materials is reduced.
Producing recycled products uses less energy.
79
What is incineration?
When waste is burned.
80
What are the environmental effects of incineration?
Reduces the amount of waste going to landfill.
Emits greenhouse gases and causes air pollution.
Toxic chemicals can be released.
81
What is recovery?
Using waste instead of new products.
For example, waste concrete can be crushed and used for other purposes.
82
What are the environmental effects of recovery?
Reduces the amount of waste being sent to landfill.
Fewer natural resources are exploited.
83
What is burial/landfill?
Waste is placed in disused mines, quarries or landfill sites.
84
What are the environmental effects of burial/landfill?
Chemicals can contaminate groundwater.
Decomposing waste releases methane.
85
What is submergence?
Disposing of waste by dumping it in oceans.
86
What are the environmental effects of submergence?
Submerged waste can release toxic or radioactive substances, damaging ocean ecosystems.
87
What is trade?
Waste is bought and sold by countries.
For example, developed countries can pay developing countries to take their hazardous waste.
88
What are the environmental effects of trading waste?
Developing countries may not dispose of hazardous waste properly which means it can damage local environments.
89
How much has the waste increased by in Singapore since 1970?
6.5 times.
It has increased from 1260 tonnes to 8400 tonnes.
90
How did the waste used to be disposed of in Singapore?
Most waste was disposed of by landfill.
91
When did Singapore's main waste disposal turn to incineration with energy recovery?
1979.
92
How much energy does waste incineration with energy recovery produce?
3% of Singapore's energy.
93
In 2015, what percentage of waste was sent to landfill, incinerated or recycled?
Landfill - 2%
Incinerated - 38%
Recycled - 60%
