Conservatism

Question 1

Conservative thinkers

Answer 1

• Thomas Hobbes (1588 - 1679)
• Edmund Burke (1729 - 1797)
• Michael Oakeshott (1901 - 1990)
• Ayn Rand (1905 - 1982)
• Robert Nozick (1939-2002)

Question 2

Thomas Hobbes - book

Answer 2

Leviathan, 1651

Question 3

Edmund Burke - book

Answer 3

Reflections on the revolution in France - 1790

Question 4

Michael Oakeshott - book

Answer 4

On being conservative - 1962

Question 5

Ayn Rand - book

Answer 5

Atlas shrugged - 1957

Question 6

Robert Nozick

Answer 6

Anarchy, State and Utopia - 1974

Question 7

Thomas Hobbes - Human Nature

Answer 7

Most gloomy and cynical.
He sees Humans as endlessly restless in their pursuit of power in order to satisfy their immediate desires and any potential future desires.

Humans are also around equal in strength and ability, and therefore we are fearful of others.

Humans are rational however, but we are incapable in solving complicated moral disputes and political problems - called relativism.

Question 8

Thomas Hobbes - Society

Answer 8

Resources are scarce. Therefore, there will be wars due to human’s desire for power and resources.

Society should only exist when stability, authority and order are present. This requires obedience and loyalty to the sovereign.

Question 9

Thomas Hobbes - State

Answer 9

Life in the state of nature, without a government is ‘nasty, brutish and short’.

Political order, established by a strong authority, can set people free.

Therefore the sovereign power needs absolute control over the people in order to establish and enforce power.

Therefore Hobbes believed in the “social contract” idea.

Question 10

Thomas Hobbes - Economy

Answer 10

The accumulation of wealth is necessary, however, the state needs to be in constant control in order to create stability.

Think statism, relate it to Hobbes ideas on the state, and how he would want a controlled economy.

Question 11

Edmund Burke - Human nature

Answer 11

Sceptical view of human nature.
He saw the individual as foolish but the species as wise - we are overall flawed.

He argued that humans could not rely on individual reason (rationalism) but could rely on tradition and custom, which was the ‘general bank and capital of nations and ages’.

Rejected the idea of a social contract:

“A social contract is an agreement between individuals, or a government and its citizens, that outlines the rights and responsibilities of each party. It is based on the belief that people have a natural right to freedom, but must give up some of that freedom in order to live in an ordered society.”

Instead Burke believed in a social contract that existed between the dead, living and unborn, which was to preserve traditions and customs.

The French Revolution was a destruction of that contract, as it destroyed existing institutions, removing the inheritance of those yet to be born.

Question 12

Edmund Burke - Society

Answer 12

Highly critical of individualism.

Defended the importance of the “we” over the “I”.

Society is organic as it develops naturally. Traditions and customs change slowly based on practical knowledge and evidence, not theory.

Burke attacked the FR emphasis on equality, as he argued the hierarchy was natural in organic society.

Society should be collective and in “little platoons”.

Question 13

Edmund Burke - State

Answer 13

We need a strong government and a higher authority with the power to create laws, which create order and stability which truly sets us free.

While Burke was very critical of the FR, he praised the American Revolution, as they were looking to keep much of the inherited British common law in their new constitution, and therefore appeased to traditions and the preservation of customs, which in France they looked to radically change.

Question 14

Edmund Burke - Economy

Answer 14

Placed a key importance on property rights, and the importance for the state to protect them.

The alleviation of poverty should be achieved by private charity.

Question 15

Michael Oakeshott - Human nature

Answer 15

Oakshott saw humans as fragile and fallible, unable to understand the world as it is too complex for humans to grasp.

Focused on the imperfection of human nature; Humans may have dreams of the ideal society, however, there is a gap in what we dream about and what we are capable of, and there is a danger in that.

Question 16

Michael Oakeshott - Society

Answer 16

Highly critical of the idea of “rationalism” - the remaking of society using political philosophers ideas.

Abstract ideals will always fail, as they are not based on concrete experience. Instead, our society must grow naturally using traditions that have been based on 100’s of years of human experience.

Question 17

Michael Oakeshott - State

Answer 17

Rejected the ideas of other earlier conservative thinkers on the government, and how they improve the condition of mankind / perfect mankind’s position.

Instead, attempts by the government to perfect mankind are dangerous to human liberty and dignity.

The main role of the government is to preserve public order.

Question 18

Michael Oakeshott - Economy

Answer 18

One nation conservative thinkers had a paternalistic view on the economy.

The state should intervene in the free market economy in order to ensure social stability.

Question 19

Ayn Rand - Human Nature

Answer 19

New right thinker who came up with the idea of rational and ethical egoism.

Her philosophy is based on the principles of reason, self-interest and capitalism, which she claims will deliver freedom and man’s happiness on Earth.

“Man must exist for his own sake”, neither sacrificing himself to others or sacrificing others for his own sake.

Question 20

Ayn Rand - Human Nature

Answer 20

New right thinker who came up with the idea of rational and ethical egoism.

Her philosophy is based on the principles of reason, self-interest and capitalism, which she claims will deliver freedom and man’s happiness on Earth.

“Man must exist for his own sake”, neither sacrificing himself to others for sacrificing others for his own sake.

Question 21

Ayn Rand - Society

Answer 21

Ayn Rand’s view on egoism led to the concept of Atomism. The concept that society, if it exists, is a collection of individuals pursuing their own individual lives and being responsible for themselves. Collective identities, such as class, are meaningless.

Society must be meritocratic.
The most talented individuals start businesses,invent new technologies and trade with other rational egoists in order to achieve their goals.

Question 22

Ayn Rand - State

Answer 22

The state’s role is vital, but is limited simply to ‘police officers’, protecting the rights of each citizen against criminals and foreign invaders.

Question 23

Ayn Rand - Economy

Answer 23

The ideal social system is free-market capitalism, which involves ‘a separation of state and economics’.

This system protects the rights of the worker to use their own mind and judgement, work for their values (and not the state / society) and keep the rewards of their labour.

Question 24

Robert Nozick - Human nature

Answer 24

Nozick is an outlier in terms of other conservative thinkers, which almost always have pessimistic views on human nature.

Nozick, however, argued that all humans have self-ownership, and are entitled to their own body, mind and abilities.

Individuals have rights which have pre-existed any other social contract / state, which comes in the form of humans’ natural tendency to devote themselves to their own projects and devices.

Instead of the “brutishly competitive atoms” that Ayn Rand saw in humans, Nozick argued that while we are indeed individualistic, we are dignified and rational in the pursuit of our goals.

Question 25

Robert Nozick - Society

Answer 25

As the idea of ‘individual’ is so central, liberty is the fundamental value. This means that individuals should be free from any form of legally enforced obligations in either the social or the economic sphere.
Any attempt at social justice via the redistribution of wealth and progressive taxation is an assault on liberty, as ‘taxation on earning is on par to forced labour’.

Question 26

Robert Nozick - State

Answer 26

A minimalist state could be justified if it is strictly limited to the protection of person, property and contract. This is a concession to the conservative view that the state needs to be strong and limited , to provide the necessary order for liberty to flourish.

The minimal state should allow for the emergence and peaceful existence of voluntarily formed communities, with their own morals, values and ideals. This comes only if the individual is free to leave these communities if they please, as it allows for them to fully explore and live their own lives.

Question 27

Robert Nozick - Economy

Answer 27

“Wilt Chamberlain” argument.

States that the state should not be allowed to redistribute the wealth of its citizens, as this violates their right to freedom.

He uses the example of Wilt Chamberlain, a professional basketball player, to demonstrate this. Chamberlain earned a large salary from playing basketball, and used to take a small profit on the amount of spectators who watched him play.

Nozick argued that if the state were to take a portion of Chamberlain’s income and redistribute it to people with lower incomes, it would be unfair and would violate Chamberlain’s right to his own property.

Question 28

Human nature - Agreement

Answer 28

• Most conservatives, with the exception of New Right thinkers, have a pessimistic view of human nature, and conservatism has been described as a ‘philosophy of imperfection’. They stress the fallibility and weakness of human nature.
• This leads conservatives to argue that the perfect society is unachievable and dangerous. The liberal idea of a society built on rational individuals is not based in true human nature, while the socialist idea that society can perfect humanity is deeply misplaced as human nature is fixed and constant.

Question 29

Human nature - disagreement

Answer 29

Hobbes:

• Hobbes held the most cynical view of human nature, seeing humans as selfish, fearful of others and driven by a ‘desire of power after power, that ceaseth only in death’.
• However, according to Hobbes human nature is rational, placing his view of human nature closer to liberalism, and later neo-liberalism, than to traditional conservatism.

Burke:

Burke did not see human nature as individualistic, selfish and brutal like Hobbes. Burke saw humans as flawed but capable of goodness and affection to others if their actions are informed by custom and tradition, and viewed humans as naturally seeking the bonds of trust with others in ‘little platoons’.

Oakeshott:

• Oakeshott built on the view of Burke, seeing human nature as ‘fragile and fallible’. Mostly agrees with traditional conservatism.

Rand and Nozick:

• Rand and Nozick broke from the philosophy of imperfection. Their view of human nature was positive, seeing humans as rational individuals who are dignified, not brutal, in pursuit of their own goals.
• Consequently, the New Right leaves individuals to make their own choices in the social and economic sphere as this will lead to an inspiring future of human achievement.

Question 30

Society - agreement

Answer 30

• Traditional conservatism has a paternalistic view of society. Society is natural, organic and living, with individuals bound together by common ties, obligations and responsibilities, much like a family.
• Tradition, custom and continuity are crucial elements of society as they form the basis of these common ties. Any attempt to radically overhaul traditional institutions, customs and practices risks doing untold damage to society.
• Shared values and morals also underpin these common ties, hence the conservative support for Judeo-Christian moral values, traditional marriage and patriotism.
• Hobbes argued that society could only exist when stability, authority and order were present. This requires obedience and loyalty to the sovereign.
• Burke held an organic view of society, favouring a natural hierarchy where those with the natural talents to govern used the power of government responsibly in the best interests of all of society.
• Burke favoured a society built around the ‘little platoons’, which established the common ties of affection and built up the wisdom of custom and tradition over time.
• Oakeshott emphasised the importance of the known, tried and tested, as he was sceptical about human progress. Change should be modest, rooted in the past and most of all realistic rather than based on some fanciful, optimistic view of human nature.