Components of Motivation (chpt.2)

Question 1

Franken Component approach

Answer 1

Biological, learned, cognitive

Question 2

Biological component

Answer 2

The physiological bases of motivation includes how species are different from each other

Common ‘gene’ vs. ‘learning’ test: Twins.
Identical (‘Monozygotic,’ Mz) twins have the same DNA.
Fraternal (‘Dizygotic,’ Dz) twins share as much DNA as regular brothers and sisters.
If Mz twins are _________ alike than Dz twins, this often shows gene influences.

Question 3

Learned component

Answer 3

Includes
the aspects of ‘nurture’ (as opposed to nature)
that gradually accumulate over time. Associative learning, e.g., _________ and operant conditioning.
Learning processes not easy to explain as associative, e.g., cultural differences.

Attention (cont).
All three types of attention can be changed through practice (cf. ‘learning’).
E.g., selective attention: With practice, a person with ADD can learn to ‘phase out’ less often in conversations.
Even ‘passive’ attention (what I notice without thinking) is ‘trained’ over time.
‘Learning depends on attention’–but attention also depends on learning.

Question 4

Cognitive Component

Answer 4

Includes all current mental processing thoughts, emotions, moods, attitudes, decision Includes topics in cognitive psychology, social cognition, and more.

Question 5

Genetics

Answer 5

Genotype: Inherited DNA pattern. Phenotype: Physiological _________ produced by genotype.

Question 6

Hardwired

Answer 6

Genetically-preset behavior.

Usually typical of a whole species.

Question 7

Softwired

Answer 7

Genetic predisposition, but strengthened by practice not all people born ‘neurotically predisposed’ _________ neurotic.
Also, people who do become neurotic can be helped by therapy.

Question 8

Prewired

Answer 8

Hardwired,’ but requires environment experience. For example taste aversion: Everyone can associate Tequila with nausea, but not everyone has the experience.

Question 9

The Brain

Answer 9

Brain structures: Distinct brain regions, that seem to have a distinct functions ex. hippocampus (memory retrieval), septum (approach behavior, pleasure

Question 10

Brain Circuits

Answer 10

Information processing back-and-forth between brain structures to fulfill functions, e.g.,the septo-hippocampal circuit retrieves memory information related to the environment to make ‘approach’-related judgments.
Involved in anxiety disorders, if dysfunctional.

Question 11

Brain systems

Answer 11

Heavily interconnected sets of brain circuits, involved in larger functions: Heavily interconnected sets of brain circuits, involved in larger functions ex. the limbic system

The ‘reward pathway’ system.
Olds (1955) found animals would press a bar to get direct electrical stimulation of part of the brain. Now known to be involved in reward-related behaviors of many kinds.
Sometimes called the ‘mesolimbic pathway,’ as it runs through the middle (‘meso’) of the limbic system.
The reticular activating system.
Stimulates the brain generally.

Question 12

Neurotransmitters (NTs)

Answer 12

Communicate between neurons.
Different NTs are usually related to different brain systems. Dopamine is the main NT in the reward pathway.
Acetylcholine is the main NT involved in attention.
Low serotonin level is often found in depression.
Some brain systems (e.g., the limbic system) use many NTs.

Question 13

Component approach

Answer 13

The ‘learned’ component.
Attention.Sensory attention (e.g., to hand, vs. eye).
Selective attention (e.g., to traffic, not the clouds, while driving).
Attention to organization/meaning: A ‘higher level’ function.

Question 14

Classical conditioning

Answer 14

Neutral stimulus (NS): Any perception not ‘hardwired’ as important.
Unconditioned stimulus (US): the taste of meat in the mouth will stimulate an unconditioned response
(UR): salivation.
Conditioned stimulus (CS): a bell ringing (i.e., originally a NS) presented before the US, becomes able to stimulate a
Conditioned response (CR): Salivation even when the US is not presented.
After learning, if the CS is presented repeatedly without the US, the CR can be ‘unlearned.’
This is called ‘extinction.’

Sometimes the US is pleasant (e.g., food), sometimes unpleasant (e.g., pain).
A lot of what we ‘attend’ to in the world can be explained by CC.
Also, the autonomic nervous system can be CCed.
E.g., heroin has more effect in a new context (=NS) than in a familiar context (=CS).

Question 15

Continued Classical conditioning

Answer 15

CC involves more than just US, UR, CS, and CR, e.g.:
‘Blocking’: If a US is already fully predicted by a CS, this ‘blocks’ a new CS-US connection being learned
Context and conditioning.
Behavioral tendencies can be altered by contexts –e.g., many Vietnam Vets stopped addiction in ‘home context’ (=CS reminding of prior CR).
–CS ‘reminders’ can have large effects.

Question 16

Instrumental Conditioning

Answer 16

AKA ‘operant conditioning.’
As earlier: If behavior X increases when Y (e.g., food, social approval) occurs afterward, then Y is reinforcement. Also: If behavior X decreases when Y (e.g., pain, social disapproval) occurs afterward, then Y is punishment.
In both cases, the ‘Y’ factor is defined by whether behavior X increases or decreases.

‘Discriminative stimulus’ (DS):
Originally a NS.
If reinforcement or punishment Y only happens when NS is present, then NS becomes DS for behavior X.
E.g., If only mom rewards Linda for behavior X, then mom–but not dad–will become a DS for behavior X.

Secondary reinforcement: Something associated with reinforcement can itself be reinforcement.
E.g., monkeys will work to get ‘coins’ associated with food reinforcement.

Question 17

Instrumental Conditioning

Intrinsic vs. extrinsic reinforcement

Answer 17

Extrinsic: Associated with ‘primary reinforcement’

Intrinsic: Reinforcing ‘in itself’–actions can ‘acquire’ reinforcing properties.
ex. any activity you like doing yourself

Question 18

Cognitive Component

Answer 18

‘Thoughts’ involve ‘mental representations’ which ‘organize’ sensory data.
Organization: ‘Concepts’ ‘select’ the sensory aspects they represent.
E.g., an adult (but not a baby) knows that sense aspects a,b,c = chair.

Question 19

Piaget’s Idea’s Cognitive componenet

Answer 19

Assimilation: Seeing ‘new X’ only in terms of ‘old concept Y.’
Piaget said infants can only assimilate.
Disequilibrium: When a child perceptual world grows, it begins to notice Xs that cannot be assimilated.

Accommodation: Learning ‘new X’ as X (not Y).
Accommodation produces more concepts, and so enabling more thinking about the world.

Question 20

Concepts

Answer 20

categories, labels, schemas, etc.).

Question 21

Cognitive Dissonance

Answer 21

Information that clashes with pre-existing ideas can sometimes annoy a person and be ignored

Question 22

Epstein’s ‘experiential system.

Answer 22

People often act according to different values than they explicitly claim.
E.g., sincerely claim to be nonsexist, but always give promotions to men.

This is not necessarily hypocrisy.
Instead, the actions show that people often operate on
‘implicit ideas’ of the ‘experiential system’ (e.s.) instead of
‘explicit ideas’ of the ‘rational system.’

Question 23

Attribution theory

Answer 23

What causes we attribute to events can have large effects,
e.g., four times more pain tolerance.
And attributional explanations derive from (often individually different) backgrounds.

Question 24

Locus of control

Answer 24

Internal locus: I cause my behavior.
External locus: My environment causes my behavior.
Can have large effects, e.g., ‘externals’ feel less guilt.
There are individual differences in locus of control.

Question 25

High vs. low monitors

Answer 25

High self-monitors.
Aware of how they affect others (good), but also
can be too concerned with ‘image.