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Physcology > componenet 2 > Flashcards

componenet 2 Flashcards

1
Q

what is social psychology

A

the study of how humans behave and interact with eachother

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2
Q

what is attribution theory

A

individuals perception of the cause of events and behaviours

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3
Q

what is self perception theory

A

It suggests that people develop their attitudes and beliefs by observing their own behavior and the context in which it occurs

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4
Q

according to the attribution theory, what are external factors

A

attribution theory is individuals perception of the cause of events and behaviours

external factors associate behaviours or events with factors out of the individuals control

  • egs, luck, timing or situational variables
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5
Q

according to the attribution theory, what are internal factors

A

attribution theory is individuals perception of the cause of events and behaviours

refers to causes for behaviour that originate within the individual eg. personality traits, skills.

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6
Q

milgrim
how did he recruit his participants

A

he sent a letter lying about the procedure

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7
Q

what characteristics did the men have to have for milgrim

A

20-50 age men
The men had a range of educational levels
They also hada variety of jobs
no college or school students

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8
Q

experiment

A

An experiment is a scientific investigation that tests a hypothesis by manipulating an IV( cause) and measuring the dv(effect)

conducted in a controlled environment, where other factors are kept constant.,

ppts are randomly allocated.

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9
Q

quasi experiments

A

a quasi experiment is a research mesthod that resembles an experiment but isn’t a true experiment as the researcher doesn’t randomly assign ppts to conditions

research where the
experimenter hasn’t deliberately manipulated the iv because it’s naturally occurring, the dv is still measured

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10
Q

what is a natural experiment

A

research method where the researcher has little or no control over the social conditions of the experment
They are observational studies.
Features/characteristics of natural experiments.
The researcher cannot manipulate the IV.
The researcher measures the DV to judge its effect on the IV.
Participants cannot be randomly assigned to experimental groups.
Natual experiments involve real life events that cannot be manipulated.
Used when unethical for controlled expt

iv arises naturally although the dv can still be measured in a lab or researchers choice

used when unethical to directly manipulate the iv

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11
Q

participant observations

A

a research meathod where the researcher takes on the role of a ppt whilst observing other ppts behaviour around them
Advantages -researcher can gain an insider perspective on the groups values and beliefs
this method of research can generate rich qualative date
It’s flexible. Can be adapted to fit different research questions
Can lead to a more in depth understanding of behaviours and patterns.

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12
Q

non- participant observations

A

a research meathod where the researcher watched s and records ppts behaviour without interfering in any way

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13
Q

content analysis

A

content analysis converts qualitative data into quantitive so it can be more easily compared
Researchers:
count occurrences
Anayze pattersns
Advantages: Non invasive way to analyze social phenomena, provides historical insights, data can be analysed in a replicable way, can be used to analyse qual and quant data

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14
Q

correlational studies

A

a research method which involves comparing 2 continuous variables to see if there’s a relationship between them

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15
Q

target populations

A

the group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying eg. people in the uk

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16
Q

sampling frames

A

when it’s unrealistic to study the whole target population, a sample target is chosen eg ppl in london

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17
Q

stregnths of a quasi experiment

A

allows researchers to investigate ‘real problems, eg the effects of disaster on health, which can help more people in more situations

allows research where the IV can’t be manipulated for practical or ethical reasons

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18
Q

weaknesses of a quasi experiment

A

cannot demonstrate casual relationships, because the IV isn’t manipulated directly so we can’t be sure that the IV caused the DV.
it could be due to confounding or extrenous variables

the ppts may belong to a particular group so the results cannot be generalised, eg they may be part of a friendly or hostile culture

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19
Q

primary sources positives/stregnths

A

Information and data that is collected directly by the researcher for their investagation. eg experiments, questionaires or interviews.
the researcher can control the format in exactly how data is collected; it will specifically relate to the aims of the research, therefore the direct behaviour under investigation can be targeted
weaknesses - time consuming, cannot examine historical trends, data collected from a snapshot in time so diff to analyze developmental trends.

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20
Q

What’s primary source data

A

primary source data is information that a researcher collects directly. eg through experiments, surveys or interviews.
(secondary source data or secondary sources is information that has not been collected by the researcher eg literature reviews or content analysis.)

weaknesses of primary source data:

Time
Primary sources can be more time consuming to collect and analyze than secondary sources.

Historical Trends
Primary sources can not be used to examine historical trends while secondary sources can

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21
Q

quantitative data stregnths

A

data is easy to analyse using statistics as it’s in the form of numbers, which are easy to display in graphs and charts to give an overveiw

easier to collect from a large group of ppts as collecting quantitve data is usually completed using lab experiments

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22
Q

quantitative data weaknesses

A

tends to lose the human level of behaviour, as only a snapshot of behaviour is recorded. researchers don’t engage with their ppts to find out what their thoughts or feelings are

tends to offer a very shallow view of behaviour as all that is investigated is the behaviour; not the reasons for that behaviour

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23
Q

cross-sectional studies

A

one group of ppts representing one section of society, (eg young people)
are compared with ppts from another group (eg old ppl)

taken from one single point in time

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24
Q

cross sectional study strengths

A

relatively quick and cheap as ppts only need to be tested once for comparisons and no follow-up study is necessary

ppts are easier to obtain as there’s less pressure for them to take part, compared to having to stick with a long term longitudinal study

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25
Q

cross sectional studies weaknesses

A

involves collecting data from a grp of pple in a single point in time.
difficult to determine why there are differences between the 2 cohorts as ppts cannot always be asked about the differences
data collected is from a snapshot in time so it’s harder to identify and analyse developmental trends in these studies

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26
Q

what are longitudinal studies

A

a study conducted over a long period of time

often ppts are assessed on 2 or more occasions as they get older

this allows the researcher to look into any long term effects( eg how memory gradually decreases with age)

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27
Q

weaknesses of longitudinal studies

A

high attrition (drop out) rate as the research takes so long. as a result the sample left is small , making it biased

ppts are more likely to be aware of the aims of the study, so may show demand characteristics

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28
Q

strengths of longitudinal studies

A

the same person is tested numerous times so ppt variables are controlled

developmental trends can be spotted easily as tests are repeated at the regular intervals over many years, and findings are compared

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29
Q

what’s a case study

A

an in depth study of one individual or a small group.

uses many different research methods eg interview, questionnaires or observations in order to get the required depth

most data collected is qualitative, but can sometimes be quantitive

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30
Q

case study strengths

A

produces rich qualititve data, which is high in ecological validity for the ppts involved as it is a study of a real life situation

allows researchers to study cases they couldn’t practically or ethically manipulate in an experiment
weaknesses - difficulty generalizing findings from one cast to another
Risk of bias - researcher’s opinions may influence results

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31
Q

weaknesses of case study’s

A

researcher bias- researchers can become too involved and lose their objectivity, so may interpret data to fit in with their theories

difficult to generalise findings beyond the individual/group studied as the sample is too small (low population validity)

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32
Q

what are participant observations positives

A

Participant observation is a research method
less chance of demand characteristics, ppts don’t know they’re being observed, making results more valid

can research people who would otherwise be very difficult to observe, therefore can find out more about human behaviours that are otherwise hidden.

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33
Q

strengths of non-participant observations

A

the observer doesn’t take part in the action but instead watches from a distance

allows for a more objective view of what’s happening

less chance of researcher bias

ppts aren’t aware they’re being observed so there’s less chance of observer bias

researchers can see how ppts behave rather than relying on self reports, producing more valid findings

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34
Q

participant observation weaknesses

A

risk of harm when engaging in group activities (eg drug taking)

unreliable findings as it’s difficult to take notes during the observation so data relies on memory, which can make results invalid

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35
Q

weaknesses of non participant observations

A

observer bias- difficult to make judgements on thoughts and feelings of ppts when theyre being watched, the observer might misinterpret a persons behaviour based on their own veiws and opinions

unethical as ppts don’t know they’re being observed and there is not often the opportunity to debrief them

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36
Q

content analysis strengths

A

a research tool that allows researchers to analyze qualitative data by turning it into quantative data

studies analysed already exist so less chance of demand characteristics from ppts

can be replicated by others

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37
Q

content analysis weaknesses

A

just described data, so you can’t draw any deeper meaning or explanation from the data patterns

cannot draw cause and effect relationships, as it simply describes the data

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38
Q

is a directional hypothesis one tailed or two tailed

A

one tailed
A directional hypothesis is a specific prediction about the effect of one variable on another
eg girls are more helpful than boys
A Non-directional hypothesis states that one variable affects antoehr but it doesn’t specify how.
eg girls and boys are different in terms of helpfulness.

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39
Q

is non directional one tailed or two tailed

A

two tailed

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40
Q

explain what’s meant by p>_0.05

A

there is a 5% chance it’s due to chance, and a 95% chance it’s due to the IV

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41
Q

what’s the most basic level of measurement

A

nominal

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42
Q

strengths of calculating/using the mean

A

uses every value in the data so it’s the most precise measure

needed to calculate a standard deviation, the most common measure of dispersion

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43
Q

weaknesses of calculating the mean

A

affected by extreme values/outliers so it isn’t always and appropriate measure

cannot be calculated for nominal data

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44
Q

strengths of calculating the median

A

not affected by extreme values/outliers so can be used often

very easy to calculate

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45
Q

weaknesses of calculating the median

A

doesn’t use every value in the data so isn’t very precise

can be difficult to calculate if there are large numbers of data

46
Q

strengths of calculating the mode

A

nor affected by extreme values/outliers so can be used often

very easy to calculate

47
Q

calculating the mode weaknesses

A

doesn’t use every value in the data so isn’t very precise

if there’s more that one common number then data has no mode at all

48
Q

what is nominal data example

A

a type of data that can be categorised into groups that don’t overlap
eg eye colour, hair colour, race, age, marital status.
How is it collected?
It is collected through questions
eg are your eyes blue? yes no
They can also be multiple choice
eg are your eyes blue, brown, green?
They can also be open ended
What colour are your eyes?

What are the four levels of measurment that can be ranked from low to high in psychology?
Ordinal, interval ratio and Nominal

49
Q

ordinal data example

A

data that can be put into order eg first, second third
it can’t tell us what the gap is between 1st and 2nd, or 4th and 5th, just the position

50
Q

interval data example

A

interval data is a data type measured on a scale where each value is placed at an equal distance/interval from eachother.
eg, temperature gauge

you can go into negative numbers

51
Q

ratio data

A

must be numerical,

has a true 0, you can’t go below 0.

eg, height range and frequency

52
Q

ethics committee

A

the board that’s in place to ensure that psychologists research meets the standards of the current ethical codes of conduct and guidelines

53
Q

ethical guidelines

A

provide a set of moral principles that guide research from its inception through to completion and publication of results

54
Q

opportunity sampling

A

investigator gathers ppts from one particular place/ time out of convenience
ppts will be those likely to come into contact with the investigator.

quick and easy way to get data, where ppts are selected based on their availability and ease of access

eg a university lecturer uses students as ppts.

55
Q

identify the level of measurement that has a true 0

A

ratio

56
Q

identify the methodology which involves the use of artefacts

A

content analysis

57
Q

inter-rater reliability

A

is the degree to which the different observers give consistent estimates of the same observers give consistent of the same observed behaviour. the researchers who observe the same behaviour independently (to avoid bias) compare their data. if the data is similar then its reliable

58
Q

test-retest method

A

this methods assesses the external reliability of a test such as questionnaires, measuring the consistency of a test overtime. a typical assessment would involve giving ppts the same test on two seperate occasions. if the same or similar results are obtained, then external reliability is established

59
Q

whats face validity

A

this is the least sophisticated measure of validity. face validity is simply weather the test appears to measure what it claims to.
tests where in the the purpose is clear are said to have high face validity

60
Q

field experiments strengths

A

higher ecological validity than lab experiments because they are conducts in a real situation without control of the experimenter so results can be generalised to real life

less demand characteristics as ppts are usually unaware they’re taking part so results are more valid as ppts cannot act in a way to please the researcher or sabotage their results

61
Q

weaknesses of feild experiments

A

unethical- ppts are unaware they’re taking part in research therefore their consent cannot be gained and it’s very difficult to debrief them afterwards

more chance of extraneous variables affect the results because there is less control than in a lab environment

62
Q

define what’s meant by a “directional hypothesis”

A

a directional hypothesis where we are sure what the direction of the experiment will go

eg young ppl will have a better memory than
old people

63
Q

outline the main features of a feild experiment

A

still manipulate the iv
still measure the DV
done in a more natural setting
which removed demand characteristics

64
Q

what is the main purpose of peer reveiw

A

aa

65
Q

what type of experiment is conducted under artificial controlled conditions

A

LABATORY

66
Q

what are repeated measures

A

one group of ppts is selected and they do both conditions

67
Q

whats an extraneous variable

A

anything that may interfere with the dv

68
Q

what are independent measures

A

the group of ppts is divided into two groups and each group does one condition

69
Q

what are confounding variables

A

what has affected the research

70
Q

what are matched pairs

A

the sample is divided into groups by matched relevant characteristics. each group does only one condition

71
Q

whats a disadvantage of repeated measures

A

order effects may occur

72
Q

whats an advantage of independent measures

A

no order effects, its quicker as they do the test at the same time

73
Q

whats is a disadvantage of indepenedent measures

A

uncontolled intergroup differences

74
Q

whats is an advanatge of matched pairs

A

no chance of intergroup differences

75
Q

whats a disadvantage of matched pairs

A

takes time and resources to match participants

76
Q

what are demand characteristcis

A

when ppts act in a way to either help or sabotage the researchers results as theyve guessed the aim

77
Q

whats meant by subjective

A

allowing emotions or feelings to interfere with research

78
Q

in an experiment, levels of happiness of a class is measured before exams and after exams. identify the experimental design

A

repeated meaasures

79
Q

whats is an example of operationalisation

A

on a scale of 1-5…………..

80
Q

what was the aim of milgrims research

A

to find out why people are obedient to doing extreme things

81
Q

what was the aim of milgrims research

A

to find out why people are obedient to doing extreme things

82
Q

what were the characteristics needdd for milgrims participants

A

men ages 20-50

no college or shcool students

83
Q

what were participants told what was being studied and how much money would they earn

A

$4 per hour, study of memory and learning

84
Q

what were milgrims results

A

at 300v five ppts refused to continue

a total of 26/40 ppts administered the full 450v

this means 35% of the ppts defied the experimenters authority

85
Q

explain what is meant by the term significance level

A

a numerical value that is usually expressed including 2 decimal places.
This level tells you the margin of error that could occur in your results and shows the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis (2)

86
Q

explain what is meant by p<\0.01 (2)

A

the probability that the results will be down to chance is 1% or less

87
Q

briefly explain how a psychologist would select a random sample for research

A

the names of everyone in the target population is listed and then the required number of ppts are selected through a random system eg. names selected from a hat

88
Q

split-half reliability

A

involves splitting a ppts test answers in half and seeing weather the ppt got the same or similar scores on the two halves.

if so, internal reliability is high.

89
Q

explain two advantages of conducting psychological research in the field compared to a lab environment

A

research conducted in the field may be more ecologically valid as the ppts are in their natural environment and will behave more naturally than in the controlled setting of a lab

in the field there is a wider range of potential locations to study the ppts

in the field there is less risk of demand characteristsics.

90
Q

is this primary or secondary data ?

an interview with people with OCD about their experiences

A

priamary

91
Q

is this primary or secondary data?

a comparison of crime statistics is under city and rural areas to see if there is a difference

A

secondary

92
Q

what is interval data

A

data that is measured on a NUMERICAL SCALE with precise and equal intervals of units

there is an equal gap between each unit of measurement

zero doesn’t mean nothing, you can go into negative numbers

93
Q

what is ratio data

A

data that is measured on a numerical scale with precise and equal intervals of units

there is an equal gap between each unit of measurement

has a true zero

you cannot go below 0

94
Q

what is construct validity (internal)

A

assesses the extent that a test measures the target construct (eg stress) eg, the research would have to look at the detention of stress and consider whether or not the questions within his questionare is effective enough

the expert could suggest improvements or might approve of the method being used, thus dealing with content validity

95
Q

what is predictive validity (internal)

A

refers to the extent to which a test or measure can accurately predict outcomes or behaviors that you would expect them to predict .

eg based on previous research the researcher would expect ppts that score highly on a stress questionare would also have high blood pressure.

thus he could check this out by also (measure ppts blood pressure) as means of assessing the predictive validity of his stress questionare

Eg a researcher would predict ppts with higher stress levels would have a higher blood pressure

if his prediction is proven to be true, then the stress questionare has predictive validity

96
Q

what’s internal validity

A

refers to the degree of which a study/test is measuring what it intended to measure.

Social desirability or leading questions can affect the internal validity of self- reports

97
Q

what is concurrent validity (external)

A

involves comparing the current method of measuring construct (eg stress) with a previously validated one.

98
Q

what is Social identity theory ?

A

A psychological theory that describes the conditions under which social identity becomes more important than one’s identity as an individual

99
Q

what is conformity

A

an individuals tendency to follow unspoken rules/behaviours of the sacred group which they belong

100
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

When someone is rewarded for positive behaviour

101
Q

What is negative reinforcement and an example

A

removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a desired behavior, with the goal of increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.

Eg. Putting sunscreen on to avoid being sunburnt

102
Q

what is a punishment

A

Being punished for undesirable behaviour eg. Naught step

103
Q

What’s an unconditioned stimulus

A

unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning. Eg a loud bang

104
Q

What’s an unconditioned response and an example

A

an unconditioned response is an automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus

It is a natural response that occurs without any prior learning or conditioning

eg crying whilst cutting an onion

105
Q

What’s a neutral stimulus

A

a neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that initially does not trigger a specific response or reaction.

106
Q

What’s a conditioned stimulus

A

conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), eventually triggers a conditioned response (CR) on its own

107
Q

What’s a conditioned response

A

A learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral

Eg Albert was scared of white fluffy things after the bang was associated with it

108
Q

What’s mundane realism

A

The extent to which a study mirrors the real world

109
Q

When does a type 1 error occur

A

Occurs when a null hypothesis is incorrectly accepted

110
Q

When does a type 2 error occur

A

When a null hypothesis is incorrectly accepted

111
Q

What’s internal reliability

A

The consistency of results across items within a single test.

It’s a measure of the extent to which something is consistent within itself

112
Q

What’s temporal validity

A

Generalisability of study results across time

Physcology (12 decks)

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