componenet 2 Flashcards
what is social psychology
the study of how humans behave and interact with eachother
what is attribution theory
individuals perception of the cause of events and behaviours
what is self perception theory
It suggests that people develop their attitudes and beliefs by observing their own behavior and the context in which it occurs
according to the attribution theory, what are external factors
attribution theory is individuals perception of the cause of events and behaviours
external factors associate behaviours or events with factors out of the individuals control
- egs, luck, timing or situational variables
according to the attribution theory, what are internal factors
attribution theory is individuals perception of the cause of events and behaviours
refers to causes for behaviour that originate within the individual eg. personality traits, skills.
milgrim
how did he recruit his participants
he sent a letter lying about the procedure
what characteristics did the men have to have for milgrim
20-50 age men
The men had a range of educational levels
They also hada variety of jobs
no college or school students
experiment
An experiment is a scientific investigation that tests a hypothesis by manipulating an IV( cause) and measuring the dv(effect)
conducted in a controlled environment, where other factors are kept constant.,
ppts are randomly allocated.
quasi experiments
a quasi experiment is a research mesthod that resembles an experiment but isn’t a true experiment as the researcher doesn’t randomly assign ppts to conditions
research where the
experimenter hasn’t deliberately manipulated the iv because it’s naturally occurring, the dv is still measured
what is a natural experiment
research method where the researcher has little or no control over the social conditions of the experment
They are observational studies.
Features/characteristics of natural experiments.
The researcher cannot manipulate the IV.
The researcher measures the DV to judge its effect on the IV.
Participants cannot be randomly assigned to experimental groups.
Natual experiments involve real life events that cannot be manipulated.
Used when unethical for controlled expt
iv arises naturally although the dv can still be measured in a lab or researchers choice
used when unethical to directly manipulate the iv
What are participant observations and their advantages
a research meathod where the researcher takes on the role of a ppt whilst observing other ppts behaviour around them
Advantages -researcher can gain an insider perspective on the groups values and beliefs
this method of research can generate rich qualative date
It’s flexible. Can be adapted to fit different research questions
Can lead to a more in depth understanding of behaviours and patterns.
allow you to generate rich and nuanced qualitative data giving you a more in depth understanding
non- participant observations
a research meathod where the researcher watched s and records ppts behaviour without interfering in any way
content analysis
content analysis converts qualitative data into quantitive so it can be more easily compared
Researchers:
count occurrences
Anayze pattersns
Advantages: Non invasive way to analyze social phenomena, provides historical insights, data can be analysed in a replicable way, can be used to analyse qual and quant data
What are correlational studies
a research method which involves comparing 2 continuous variables to see if there’s a relationship between them
target populations
the group of individuals that a researcher is interested in studying eg. people in the uk
sampling frames
when it’s unrealistic to study the whole target population, a sample target is chosen eg ppl in london
stregnths of a quasi experiment
allows researchers to investigate ‘real problems, eg the effects of disaster on health, which can help more people in more situations
allows research where the IV can’t be manipulated for practical or ethical reasons
weaknesses of a quasi experiment
cannot demonstrate casual relationships, because the IV isn’t manipulated directly so we can’t be sure that the IV caused the DV.
it could be due to confounding or extrenous variables
the ppts may belong to a particular group so the results cannot be generalised, eg they may be part of a friendly or hostile culture
primary sources positives/stregnths
Information and data that is collected directly by the researcher for their investagation. eg experiments, questionaires or interviews.
the researcher can control the format in exactly how data is collected; it will specifically relate to the aims of the research, therefore the direct behaviour under investigation can be targeted
Primary data may be more reliable and valid than secondary data as the researcher has full control over how the data is collected.
weaknesses - time consuming, cannot examine historical trends, data collected from a snapshot in time so diff to analyze developmental trends.
What’s primary source data
primary source data is information that a researcher collects directly. eg through experiments, surveys or interviews.
(secondary source data or secondary sources is information that has not been collected by the researcher eg literature reviews or content analysis.)
weaknesses of primary source data:
Time
Primary sources can be more time consuming to collect and analyze than secondary sources.
Historical Trends
Primary sources can not be used to examine historical trends while secondary sources can
quantitative data stregnths
data is easy to analyse using statistics as it’s in the form of numbers, which are easy to display in graphs and charts to give an overveiw
easier to collect from a large group of ppts as collecting quantitve data is usually completed using lab experiments
quantitative data weaknesses
tends to lose the human level of behaviour, as only a snapshot of behaviour is recorded. researchers don’t engage with their ppts to find out what their thoughts or feelings are
tends to offer a very shallow view of behaviour as all that is investigated is the behaviour; not the reasons for that behaviour
cross-sectional studies
one group of ppts representing one section of society, (eg young people)
are compared with ppts from another group (eg old ppl)
taken from one single point in time
cross sectional study strengths
relatively quick and cheap as ppts only need to be tested once for comparisons and no follow-up study is necessary
ppts are easier to obtain as there’s less pressure for them to take part, compared to having to stick with a long term longitudinal study
What are cross sectional studies and their weaknesses
involves collecting data from a group of people in a single point in time.
difficult to determine why there are differences between the 2 cohorts as ppts cannot always be asked about the differences
data collected is from a snapshot in time so it’s harder to identify and analyse developmental trends in these studies
what are longitudinal studies
a study conducted over a long period of time
often ppts are assessed on 2 or more occasions as they get older
this allows the researcher to look into any long term effects( eg how memory gradually decreases with age)
weaknesses of longitudinal studies
high attrition (drop out) rate as the research takes so long. as a result the sample left is small , making it biased
ppts are more likely to be aware of the aims of the study, so may show demand characteristics
strengths of longitudinal studies
the same person is tested numerous times so ppt variables are controlled
developmental trends can be spotted easily as tests are repeated at the regular intervals over many years, and findings are compared
what’s a case study
an in depth study of one individual or a small group.
uses many different research methods eg interview, questionnaires or observations in order to get the required depth
most data collected is qualitative, but can sometimes be quantitive
case study strengths
produces rich qualititve data, which is high in ecological validity for the ppts involved as it is a study of a real life situation
allows researchers to study cases they couldn’t practically or ethically manipulate in an experiment
weaknesses - difficulty generalizing findings from one cast to another
Risk of bias - researcher’s opinions may influence results
weaknesses of case study’s
researcher bias- researchers can become too involved and lose their objectivity, so may interpret data to fit in with their theories
difficult to generalise findings beyond the individual/group studied as the sample is too small (low population validity)
what are participant observations positives
Participant observation is a research method
less chance of demand characteristics, ppts don’t know they’re being observed, making results more valid
can research people who would otherwise be very difficult to observe, therefore can find out more about human behaviours that are otherwise hidden.
strengths of non-participant observations
the observer doesn’t take part in the action but instead watches from a distance
allows for a more objective view of what’s happening
less chance of researcher bias
ppts aren’t aware they’re being observed so there’s less chance of observer bias
researchers can see how ppts behave rather than relying on self reports, producing more valid findings
Observees may not realise they are being observed - behaviour may not be changed by presence of observer.
The observer may be more objective.
Observer can record their observations as they occur - more reliable in terms of memory
participant observation weaknesses
risk of harm when engaging in group activities (eg drug taking)
unreliable findings as it’s difficult to take notes during the observation so data relies on memory, which can make results invalid
weaknesses of non participant observations
observer bias- difficult to make judgements on thoughts and feelings of ppts when theyre being watched, the observer might misinterpret a persons behaviour based on their own veiws and opinions
unethical as ppts don’t know they’re being observed and there is not often the opportunity to debrief them
content analysis strengths
a research tool that allows researchers to analyze qualitative data by turning it into quantative data
studies analysed already exist so less chance of demand characteristics from ppts
can be replicated by others
content analysis weaknesses
just described data, so you can’t draw any deeper meaning or explanation from the data patterns
cannot draw cause and effect relationships, as it simply describes the data
is a directional hypothesis one tailed or two tailed
one tailed
A directional hypothesis is a specific prediction about the effect of one variable on another
eg girls are more helpful than boys
A Non-directional hypothesis states that one variable affects antoehr but it doesn’t specify how.
eg girls and boys are different in terms of helpfulness.
is non directional one tailed or two tailed
two tailed
explain what’s meant by p>_0.05
there is a 5% chance it’s due to chance, and a 95% chance it’s due to the IV
what’s the most basic level of measurement
nominal
strengths of calculating/using the mean
uses every value in the data so it’s the most precise measure
needed to calculate a standard deviation, the most common measure of dispersion
weaknesses of calculating the mean
affected by extreme values/outliers so it isn’t always and appropriate measure
cannot be calculated for nominal data
strengths of calculating the median
not affected by extreme values/outliers so can be used often
very easy to calculate
weaknesses of calculating the median
doesn’t use every value in the data so isn’t very precise
can be difficult to calculate if there are large numbers of data
strengths of calculating the mode
nor affected by extreme values/outliers so can be used often
very easy to calculate
calculating the mode weaknesses
doesn’t use every value in the data so isn’t very precise
if there’s more that one common number then data has no mode at all
what is nominal data example
a type of data that can be categorised into groups that don’t overlap
eg eye colour, hair colour, race, age, marital status.
How is it collected?
It is collected through questions
eg are your eyes blue? yes no
They can also be multiple choice
eg are your eyes blue, brown, green?
They can also be open ended
What colour are your eyes?
What are the four levels of measurment that can be ranked from low to high in psychology?
Ordinal, interval ratio and Nominal
ordinal data example
data that can be put into order eg first, second third
it can’t tell us what the gap is between 1st and 2nd, or 4th and 5th, just the position
interval data example
interval data is a data type measured on a scale where each value is placed at an equal distance/interval from eachother.
eg, temperature gauge
you can go into negative numbers
ratio data
must be numerical,
has a true 0, you can’t go below 0.
eg, height range and frequency
ethics committee
the board that’s in place to ensure that psychologists research meets the standards of the current ethical codes of conduct and guidelines
ethical guidelines
provide a set of moral principles that guide research from its inception through to completion and publication of results
opportunity sampling
investigator gathers ppts from one particular place/ time out of convenience
ppts will be those likely to come into contact with the investigator.
quick and easy way to get data, where ppts are selected based on their availability and ease of access
eg a university lecturer uses students as ppts.
identify the level of measurement that has a true 0
ratio
identify the methodology which involves the use of artefacts
content analysis
inter-rater reliability
Refers to the degree of agreement between different researchers observing or assessing the same behaviour
the researchers observe the behaviour independently (to avoid bias) and compare their data.
if the data is similar then its reliable
test-retest method
this methods assesses the external reliability of a test such as questionnaires, measuring the consistency of a test overtime. a typical assessment would involve giving ppts the same test on two seperate occasions. if the same or similar results are obtained, then external reliability is established
whats face validity
this is the least sophisticated measure of validity. face validity is simply weather the test appears to measure what it claims to.
tests where in the the purpose is clear are said to have high face validity
field experiments strengths
higher ecological validity than lab experiments because they are conducts in a real situation without control of the experimenter so results can be generalised to real life
less demand characteristics as ppts are usually unaware they’re taking part so results are more valid as ppts cannot act in a way to please the researcher or sabotage their results
weaknesses of feild experiments
unethical- ppts are unaware they’re taking part in research therefore their consent cannot be gained and it’s very difficult to debrief them afterwards
more chance of extraneous variables affect the results because there is less control than in a lab environment
define what’s meant by a “directional hypothesis”
a directional hypothesis where we are sure what the direction of the experiment will go
eg young ppl will have a better memory than
old people
outline the main features of a feild experiment
still manipulate the iv
still measure the DV
done in a more natural setting
which removed demand characteristics
what is the main purpose of peer reveiw
to check the quality and validity of the research, and to ensure that the research contributes to its field
what type of experiment is conducted under artificial controlled conditions
LABATORY
what are repeated measures
one group of ppts is selected and they do both conditions
whats an extraneous variable
anything that may interfere with the dv
what are independent measures
the group of ppts is divided into two groups and each group does one condition
what are confounding variables
what has affected the research
what are matched pairs
the sample is divided into groups by matched relevant characteristics. each group does only one condition
whats a disadvantage of repeated measures
order effects may occur
whats an advantage of independent measures
no order effects, its quicker as they do the test at the same time
whats is a disadvantage of indepenedent measures
uncontolled intergroup differences
whats is an advanatge of matched pairs
no chance of intergroup differences
whats a disadvantage of matched pairs
takes time and resources to match participants
what are demand characteristcis
when ppts act in a way to either help or sabotage the researchers results as theyve guessed the aim
whats meant by subjective
allowing emotions or feelings to interfere with research
in an experiment, levels of happiness of a class is measured before exams and after exams. identify the experimental design
repeated meaasures
whats is an example of operationalisation
on a scale of 1-5…………..
what was the aim of milgrims research
to find out why people are obedient to doing extreme things
what was the aim of milgrims research
to find out why people are obedient to doing extreme things
what were the characteristics needdd for milgrims participants
men ages 20-50
no college or shcool students
what were participants told what was being studied and how much money would they earn
$4 per hour, study of memory and learning
what were milgrims results
at 300v five ppts refused to continue
a total of 26/40 ppts administered the full 450v
this means 35% of the ppts defied the experimenters authority
explain what is meant by the term significance level
a numerical value that is usually expressed including 2 decimal places.
This level tells you the margin of error that could occur in your results and shows the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis (2)
explain what is meant by p<\0.01 (2)
the probability that the results will be down to chance is 1% or less
briefly explain how a psychologist would select a random sample for research
the names of everyone in the target population is listed and then the required number of ppts are selected through a random system eg. names selected from a hat
split-half reliability
involves splitting a ppts test answers in half and seeing weather the ppt got the same or similar scores on the two halves.
if so, internal reliability is high.
explain two advantages of conducting psychological research in the field compared to a lab environment
research conducted in the field may be more ecologically valid as the ppts are in their natural environment and will behave more naturally than in the controlled setting of a lab
in the field there is a wider range of potential locations to study the ppts
in the field there is less risk of demand characteristsics.
is this primary or secondary data ?
an interview with people with OCD about their experiences
priamary
is this primary or secondary data?
a comparison of crime statistics is under city and rural areas to see if there is a difference
secondary
what is interval data
data that is measured on a NUMERICAL SCALE with precise and equal intervals of units
there is an equal gap between each unit of measurement
zero doesn’t mean nothing, you can go into negative numbers
what is ratio data
data that is measured on a numerical scale with precise and equal intervals of units
there is an equal gap between each unit of measurement
has a true zero
you cannot go below 0
what is construct validity (internal)
assesses the extent that a test measures the target construct (eg stress)
the expert could suggest improvements or might approve of the method being used, thus (therefore) dealing with content validity
what is predictive validity (internal)
refers to the extent to which a test or measure can accurately predict outcomes or behaviors that you would expect them to predict .
eg based on previous research the researcher would expect ppts that score highly on a stress questionare would also have high blood pressure.
thus he could check this out by also (measure ppts blood pressure) as means of assessing the predictive validity of his stress questionare
Eg a researcher would predict ppts with higher stress levels would have a higher blood pressure
if his prediction is proven to be true, then the stress questionare has predictive validity
what’s internal validity
refers to the degree of which a study/test is measuring what it intended to measure.
Social desirability or leading questions can affect the internal validity of self- reports
what is concurrent validity (external)
involves comparing the current method of measuring construct (eg stress) with a previously validated one.
what is Social identity theory ?
A psychological theory that describes the conditions under which social identity becomes more important than one’s identity as an individual
what is conformity
an individuals tendency to follow unspoken rules/behaviours of the sacred group which they belong
Positive reinforcement
When someone is rewarded for positive behaviour
What is negative reinforcement and an example
removal of an unpleasant stimulus following a desired behavior, with the goal of increasing the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
Eg. Putting sunscreen on to avoid being sunburnt
what is a punishment
Being punished for undesirable behaviour eg. Naught step
What’s an unconditioned stimulus
unconditioned stimulus (UCS) is a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response without any prior learning. Eg a loud bang
What’s an unconditioned response and an example
an unconditioned response is an automatic reaction to an unconditioned stimulus
It is a natural response that occurs without any prior learning or conditioning
eg crying whilst cutting an onion
What’s a neutral stimulus
a neutral stimulus (NS) is a stimulus that initially does not trigger a specific response or reaction.
What’s a conditioned stimulus
conditioned stimulus is a previously neutral stimulus that, after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), eventually triggers a conditioned response (CR) on its own
What’s a conditioned response
A learned response to a stimulus that was previously neutral
Eg Albert was scared of white fluffy things after the bang was associated with it
What’s mundane realism
The extent to which a study mirrors the real world
When does a type 1 error occur
Occurs when a null hypothesis is incorrectly accepted
When does a type 2 error occur
When a null hypothesis is incorrectly accepted
What’s internal reliability
The consistency of results across items within a single test.
It’s a measure of the extent to which something is consistent within itself
What’s temporal validity
Generalisability of study results across time
Observational sampling techniques
A sampling technique used to collect data about specific behaviours or events within specific time frames
What’s external reliability
The extent to which a test produces consistent results over several occasions
What’s internal validity
The findings are accurate and the effects on the DV are caused by the IV.
Therefore the study measures what it intends to measure
External validity
Whether the study paints a true picture of real life Behaviours.
Ethical guidelines
Provide a set of moral principles that guide research from its inception through to completion and publication of results
Debriefing
A method which aims to ensure patients are aware of the true nature of the study
It should return the ppt back to their original state
What are observed ( calculated ) values
The numerical value that is created as a result of inferential statistical analysis of ur data.
This will be compared to the critical values for the test to calculate the level of significance
Critical values from tables
The tabulated numerical values that have been assigned to a particular inferential statistical test.
It is compared to the observed value for your set of data to calculate significance
Explain one advantage of using a self selected sampling technique
Researcher can be confident the selected ppt will want to take part, unlike randomly selected, meaning they’re less likely to drop out
Disadvantage of self selected sampling technique
Self selected volunteers are more likely to be un-representative than randomly selected ppts,
As ppl who volunteer for research may be more confident than those who are less willing to take part
Explain what’s meant by p<- 0.01
The probability the results will be down to chance is 1% or less
Explain why a psychological researcher may use a p value of p>- 0.01 rather than p-> 0.05
As p005 is not as strict as p001
P005 has more probability that the findings are due to chance
Which may not be acceptable in some research eg clinical trials
Evaluate strengths and weaknesses of using semi structured interviews
Strengths- more detailed info can be obtained than in a stricter intervenor as questions about thoughts and feelings can be asked
Can avoid asking irrelevant questions
Weaknesses
Require interveiwers with more skill than a structured one S interviewer must delete lol new questions on the spot. More spenny
Questions on spot may lack objectivity beavshe the interviewer has little time to reflect on what they say
Strength of brain scan in psychological researcher
PET scans reveal chemical info that isn’t available with other imaging techniques
MRI is the best suited case for when a patient has to undergo the exam multiple times as, unlike pet, it doesn’t expose the patient to hazardous radiation
Weaknesses of brain scans in psychological research
Scans take a long time and can be uncomfy, bad for claustrophobic ppts
Extremely costly techniques therefore not easily available for research
PET patient is injected with radioactive substance. Can only be used a few times
What are experimental designs ( the three types)
Repeated measures
Independent measures
Matched pairs
What are graphical representations
A table showing the rate of occurrence (frequency) for a number of measured categories
