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communicable diseases Flashcards

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1
Q

name for an organism which causes disease?

A

pathogen

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2
Q

name for organism on which a pathogen lives and the effects of a pathogen

A

host; takes nutrition and causes damage

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3
Q

Describe behaviour of bacteria (2)

A

Produce threads called hyphae which form system called mycelium, can penetrate, often live in vascular tissues of plants, release enzymes which digest surrounding substances

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4
Q

How do viruses replicate and spread?

A

Invade cells and take over genetic machinery to copy itself, host cell bursts releasing more of the virus

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5
Q

Describe protocista and their behaviour

A

animal-like organisms, cause harm by entering and feeding on host cells as they grow

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6
Q

Name two bacterial animal diseases

A

Tuberculosis and bacterial meningitis

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7
Q

Name one bacterial plant disease

A

ring rot

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8
Q

Name three animal viral diseases

A

HIV/AIDS, measles and influenza

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9
Q

Name one viral plant disease

A

Tobacco mosaic virus

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10
Q

Name two fungal plant diseases

A

Black sigatoka in bananas and rose black spot

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11
Q

Name two fungal animal diseases

A

Ringworm in cattle and athlete’s foot in humans

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12
Q

Name one protocistan animal disease

A

Malaria

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13
Q

Name one protocistan plant disease

A

Blight in tomatoes and potatoes

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14
Q

State the four stages of the life cycle of a pathogen

A

Travel to new host; enter tissues; reproduce; leave tissues

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15
Q

Name four types of direct transmission

A

Direct physical contact; faecal-oral; droplet infection; spores

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16
Q

What is direct transmission by physical contact?

A

transmission of a disease by touching contaminated individual or surfaces

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17
Q

What is direct faecal-oral transmission?

A

eating contaminated food/water

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18
Q

What is direct droplet transmission?

A

infection from air-borne droplets/contaminants

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19
Q

What is direct transmission by spores?

A

spores travelling in air/residing on soil cause infection

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20
Q

How to avoid transmission by contact?

A

Wash hands regularly;
keep surfaces clean;
clean and disinfect wounds and equipment;
condoms during intercourse

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21
Q

How to avoid faecal-oral transmission?

A

cleanse of waste water and drinking water, in some parts of world human waste water used fertilise crops;
wash and prepare fresh food for cooking

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22
Q

How to avoid droplet transmission?

A

Cover mouth when coughing or sneezing and bin tissues

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23
Q

How to avoid transmission by spores? (2)

A

Wear a mask;
wash skin after contact with soil

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24
Q

Name six social factors which affect transmission

A

overcrowding, e.g. in houses;
poor ventilation;
poor health;
poor diet;
homelessness;
living around those migrated from areas where disease more common

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25
Q

Example of poor health increasing risk of transmission

A

someone with HIV are more likely to be infected with other diseases due to their weakened immune system

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26
Q

How are pathogens transmitted indirectly?

A

via a vector, another organism used by pathogen to gain entry to host

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27
Q

Name parasite which causes malaria

A

Plasmodium

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28
Q

Name the vector which carries plasmodium

A

female anopheles mosquito

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29
Q

Example of vector transmission in animals

A

The plasmodium parasite which causes malaria enters human via bite from female anopheles mosquito

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30
Q

Three ways plant diseases are transmitted directly

A

Pathogens enter roots if damaged;
airborne transmission of spores;
infection of vascular tissue

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31
Q

How does infection of vascular tissue cause direct transmission?

A

vascular tissue in leaves infected, leaves drop off and infect the soil and other plants, or seeds are redistributed and infect offspring

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32
Q

Explain indirect vector transmission in plants

A

insect attacks and pathogen attaches to insect (vector), transmitted to next attacked plant

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33
Q

How does climate affect disease?

A

pathogens grow rapidly in warm and moist conditions, in cold they may be damaged or killed and cant reproduce, infection more common in warm climate

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34
Q

Why plants attractive to pathogens and vectors?

A

Create sugars in photosynthesis, used for proteins and oils, nutrients for organisms to thrive.

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35
Q

Describe passive defences

A

Present before infection, prevent entry and spread of all kinds of pathogen

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36
Q

Name seven physical passive defences of plants

A

Cellulose cell wall;
lignin thickening of cell walls;
waxy cuticle;
bark;
stomatal closure;
callose;
tylose formation

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37
Q

How does the cell wall protect plants?

A

physical barrier with active chemical defenses

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38
Q

How does lignin thickening protect plants?

A

lignin waterproof and indigestible, barrier

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39
Q

How does the waxy cuticle protect plants?

A

prevents water collecting on leaves, which is needed by pathogens to survive

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40
Q

How does bark protect plants?

A

contains various chemical defences like tannins which work against organisms

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41
Q

How does stomatal closure protect plants?

A

when pathogens detected guard cells close in that part of plant

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42
Q

How does callose protect plants?

A

Large polysaccharide deposited in sieve tubes, blocks flow through sieve plates, prevent pathogen spread around plant

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43
Q

How does tylose formation protect plants?

A

Swelling which fills xylem vessel, stops flow of water preventing spread through plant, contains anti-pathogenic toxins

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44
Q

Why are chemicals not always present in plants?

A

production of chemicals requires energy, many only produced when infection detected

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45
Q

Two areas chemicals always present in plants

A

Bark and tylose formation

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46
Q

Reaction when pathogens are detected by a plant

A

detected by chemicals in cell walls, plant fortify present defences, increasing physical defences and producing chemicals.

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47
Q

Five active defences of plants

A

Cell walls thickened and strengthened with extra cellulose;
deposition of callose;
oxidative bursts;
increase in production of chemicals;
necrosis;

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48
Q

Five defensive chemicals in plants

A

Terpenoids; Phenols; Alkaloids; Defensive proteins (defensins); hydrolytic enzymes

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49
Q

How does callose act as an active defense in plants?

A

Deposited between cell wall and membranes of area near invading pathogen to prevent cellular penetration, strengthen cell wall and block plasmodesmata

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50
Q

What is necrosis?

A

deliberate death of cells around invading pathogen

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51
Q

How does necrosis defend against pathogens?

A

limit pathogens access to nutrients and water and stops spread around plant

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52
Q

How is necrosis initiated?

A

By intracellular enzyme triggered by damage caused by pathogen

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53
Q

How oxidative bursts act as active defense in plants?

A

Releases reactive oxygen, which can damage invading pathogen

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54
Q

What are terpenoids?

A

essential oils with antibacterial and antifungal properties

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55
Q

Give example of terpenoids

A

menthols produced by mint plants

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56
Q

What is a canker?

A

Necrotic lesion in woody tissue like main stem or branch. Causes death of cambium tissue in bark

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57
Q

What are phenols?

A

Chemicals with antibiotic and antifungal properties

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58
Q

Give example of phenol

A

tannins in bark

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59
Q

How do tannins work?

A

Bind to and deactivate digestive enzymes like trypsin and chymotrypsin;
Stops growth of insect, then dies

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60
Q

What are alkaloids?

A

Nitrogen-containing compounds with bitter taste

61
Q

Five examples of alkaloids

A

caffeine, nicotine, cocaine, morphine, solanine

62
Q

What does a blood clot consist of?

A

Platelets, fibrin, rbcs

63
Q

Describe role of mucus membranes

A

Line airways and protect vulnerable exchange areas from infection, trapping pathogens

64
Q

How is mucous formed in the airways?

A

secreted by goblet cells in the epithelial layer

65
Q

How do mucus membranes protect the body from infection? (4)

A

lines airways and traps pathogens;
cilia waft mucous in coordination to the throat;
mucus can enter oesophagus;
swallowed and often killed by acids in stomach

66
Q

How do alkaloids protect plants? (3)

A

Bitter taste stops herbivores feeding;
inhibit/activate various metabolic reactions like protein synthesis in herbivore;
preventing damage by animals prevents entrance of pathogens

67
Q

What causes coughing and sneezing?

A

irritation caused by pathogens, reflexes intended to expel the pathogens

68
Q

How does inflammation occur? (4)

A

microorganisms detected by mast cells;
release cell signaller histamine;
causes vasodilation;
wbcs and plasma leave, increased tissue fluid, swelling in infected area

69
Q

How can inflammation trigger the specific immune response?

A

excess tissue fluid drains into the lymphatic system, lymphocytes in lymph may be activated triggering APCs and the immune response

70
Q

What is vasodilation?

A

widening of blood vessels, capillaries become more permeable, wbcs can leave causing inflammation during an infection

71
Q

How is histamine released?

A

by mast cells, which detect infection by a microorganism

72
Q

How do defensins protect plants?

A

inhibit action of ion transport channels in plasma membrane of pathogens

73
Q

What are the two stages of secondary active defence?

A

phagocytic defence - non specific
the immune response - specific

74
Q

What are phagocytes

A

wbcs which engulf and digest pathogens

75
Q

Three types of hydrolytic enzyme in plants

A

chitinases, glucanases, lysosomes

76
Q

Name two types of phagocyte

A

neutrophil and macrophage

77
Q

What are neutrophils and how do they defend against pathogens?

A

Most common phagocyte, squeeze out into tissue fluid during infection and engulfs pathogens, die quickly and act fast

78
Q

Where are neutrophils made and how do they travel?

A

made in bone marrow, travel in the blood

79
Q

What do chitinases do?

A

Break down chitin in fungal cell walls of invading organism

80
Q

Describe the process of phagocytosis (4)

A

phagocyte binds to opsonin attached to antigen of pathogen;
pathogen engulfed by endocytosis, forms phagosome;
lysosomes fuse with phagosome (phagolysosome) releasing enzymes;
pathogens digested and products absorbed

81
Q

What is a lysosome?

A

vesicle containing powerful hydrolytic enzymes

82
Q

What do macrophages do?

A

engulfs pathogens but doesn’t digest antigens, displays them on surface, travels in lymphatic system, activating lymphocytes and triggering specific immune response

83
Q

Which cells act as APCs?

A

macrophages and infected body cells

84
Q

Distinct characteristic of macrophages

A

larger, kidney shaped nucleus

85
Q

Where are macrophages made and how do they travel?

A

bone marrow, travel in the blood as inactive monocytes, are activate at lymph nodes

86
Q

Why do cells not attack macrophage APCs?

A

Antigens presented by special protein complexes which show they are not a pathogen

87
Q

Body cell which displays foreign antigens?

A

Antigen-presenting cell (APC)

88
Q

How do APCs trigger immune response?

A

Move around body to activate specific T and B lymphocytes with complimentary receptors, increases chance/speed of finding specific lymphocytes

89
Q

Name for activation of T and B lymphocytes?

A

Clonal selection

90
Q

What is clonal selection?

A

activation of specific T and B lymphocytes

91
Q

What are cytokines?

A

chemical signalling molecules

92
Q

Cell types T-lymphocytes differentiate into (4)

A

T helper (Th)
T killer (Tk)
T memory (Tm)
T regulator (Tr)

93
Q

Role of T-helper cells

A

release interleukins, stimulate proliferation of B cells and phagocytosis

94
Q

Role of T-killer cells

A

Attack and kill body cells containing the pathogen using perforin

95
Q

Role of T and B memory cells

A

Remain in blood and provide long term immunity, trigger rapid release of antibodies

96
Q

Role of T-regulator cells

A

End immune response when pathogen killed , prevents development of auto-immune diseases

97
Q

Cells B lymphocytes differentiate into?

A

Plasma
B memory (Bm)

98
Q

Role of plasma cells

A

travel body releasing antibodies for a specific antigen

99
Q

How do cells communicate?

A

release of cytokines, chemical signallers, target cell has receptors complimentary to signalling molecule

100
Q

Three examples of cytokines

A
  • monokines
  • interleukins
  • interferons
101
Q

What is an autoimmune disease?

A

Immune system attacks healthy body cells

102
Q

How body prevents autoimmune diseases?

A

T and B cells with receptors complimentary to body cells are destroyed during early development

103
Q

What is proliferation?

A

Clonal expansion, T and B cells increase in numbers by mitosis

104
Q

Two examples of autoimmune diseases?

A

arthritis and lupus

105
Q

Describe arthritis

A

painful inflammation of joint, antibodies attack membranes of surrounding cells

106
Q

Describe lupus

A

affects any part of body, causes swelling and pain, sometimes antibodies attack proteins in the nucleus of affected cells

107
Q

What is the specific immune response?

A

Specific lymphocyte action where antibodies and memory cells are created

108
Q

What do interleukins do?

A

stimulate clonal expansion/proliferation and differentiation of T and B cells

109
Q

What type of protein are antibodies?

A

immunoglobulins

110
Q

How do antibodies bind to pathogens?

A

they are complementary to the specific shape of the pathogen

111
Q

Describe the structure of an antibody (6)

A

Y shaped;
made four polypeptide chains, 2 heavy and 2 light;
held by disulphide links;
variable region where attaches to antigens, differs between antibodies;
constant region always the same;
hinge region for flexibility

112
Q

How are polypeptide chains in an antibody held together?

A

by disulfide bridges

113
Q

Name the two regions of an antibody

A

variable and constant

114
Q

Name three main groups of antibodies

A

opsonins;
agglutinins;
anti-toxins

115
Q

Describe the role of opsonins

A

binding site for phagocytic cells so they can engulf pathogen;
prevents antigens from binding to and entering host cell

116
Q

Describe the role of agglutinins

A

act like glue - each bind to two pathogens, cause pathogens to be clumped (agglutinated) together;
cannot enter host cells and are readily engulfed by pathogens

117
Q

What are agglutinated pathogens?

A

pathogens clumped together by the binding of agglutinins (antibodies)

118
Q

Describe the role of antitoxins

A

attach to molecules released by pathogens, rendering them harmless

119
Q

Describe the primary immune response graph

A

when first infected, antigens must be recognised and antibodies made. slow process, few days before infection can be handled. after destroyed, antibody concentration drops rapidly

120
Q

Describe the secondary immune response

A

B and T memory cells in blood recognise a second infection and start quicker immune response, rapid creation of antibodies and much higher concentration, often prevents symptoms being felt in host

121
Q

How does a vaccination work?

A

Host exposed antigenic material, and immune system treats it as the real disease;
memory cells are made which makes host immune

122
Q

Five forms of antigenic material used in vaccines

A

live microorganisms with similar antigens;
weakened pathogen;
dead pathogen;
preparation of antigens;
a toxoid, harmless toxin

123
Q

Describe the herd vaccination method

A

Protecting the whole population, by immunising majority of population, disease cannot spread, causing herd immunity (

124
Q

Describe ring vaccination method

A

Immunising people in immediate area of outbreak to stop spread

125
Q

When is ring vaccination commonly used?

A

to stop the spread of livestock disease, as they are held within one area

126
Q

How can pathogens overcome vaccination?

A

Pathogens may undergo mutations which change their antigens and render vaccination useless, as antibodies can no longer bind

127
Q

How might an epidemic begin?

A

when antigens of a pathogen change and overcome existing treatment

128
Q

Describe an active and passive form of natural immunity

A

active - immunity from previous infection and immune response
passive - antibodies provided to baby from placenta and breast milk while immune system still developing

129
Q

What is an epidemic?

A

a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.

130
Q

What is a pandemic?

A

worldwide epidemic

131
Q

What is an epidemic?

A

a widespread occurrence of an infectious disease in a community at a particular time.

132
Q

What is active immunity?

A

Immunity caused by immune system response and attack, creating antibodies and memory cells

133
Q

What is passive immunity?

A

Immunity usually temporary caused by external supply of antibodies, does not involve creation of antibodies by the immune system

134
Q

Describe an active and passive form of artificial immunity

A

active - immunity by immune response to injected antigens (vaccine)
passive - immunity from antibodies injected by another individual

135
Q

Who is most at risk of influenza virus?

A

people with respiratory tract conditions

136
Q

Three reasons new medicines are needed

A

New diseases emerging;
existing diseases with no treatment;
antibiotics becoming less effective

137
Q

Eight ways new medicines may be discovered/developed

A

accidental discovery;
traditional remedies;
observation of wildlife;
further plant research;
research into disease causing mechanisms;
personalised medicines;
synthetic biology;
antibiotic use and abuse

138
Q

How is plant research useful for developing medicines? (2)

A

can locate active ingredient in plant which gives medicinal properties;
lots of potential - tropical plants still have wide range and diversity

139
Q

How does studying microorganisms help develop medicines?

A

can attempt to find a way to block their attack e.g. drugs to inhibit pathogen from binding to body cells

140
Q

What are defensins?

A

Small anti-microbial cysteine-rich proteins

141
Q

Where are hydrolytic enzymes found in plants?

A

Found in spaces between cells

142
Q

State 8 primary defences of the body (8)

A

Skin;
skin repair/blood clotting;
mucous membranes;
coughing and sneezing;
inflammation;
enzymes in tears;
earwax;
female cervical mucus plug

143
Q

How does skin protect the body? (2)

A

Physical barrier;
cells die and eventually are shed along with any pathogens

144
Q

Describe the structure of the skin

A

Outer layer epidermis, made up of layers. Most of cells called keratinocytes.

145
Q

How has misuse of antibiotics caused issues?

A

Overuse and misuse of antibiotics has caused pathogens to develop a resistance to them, so are less-effective in present day;
e.g. C. diff and MRSA

146
Q

Two examples of antibiotic resistant bacteria

A

MRSA and C. diff

147
Q

How does perforin kill infected cells?

A

breaks down the cell membrane

148
Q

Three examples of vectors which transmit disease?

A

wind, water, insects

Biology (18 decks)

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