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MCAT Psychology > Cognition, Consciousness, and Language > Flashcards

Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Flashcards

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1
Q

Information processing model

A

Brain=Computer

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2
Q

Cognitive development

A

The development of one’s ability think and solve problems across the lifespan

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3
Q

Adaptation

A

The process of classifying new information into existing schemata

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4
Q

Accommodation

A

The process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information

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5
Q

Sensorimotor Stage

A

The first stage of Piaget’s theory. Birth-2 yrs. A child learns to manipulate their environment in order to meet physical needs

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6
Q

Primary circular reactions

A

The repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance because the child finds it soothing

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7
Q

Secondary circular reactions

A

Occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from a high environment

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8
Q

Preoperational stage

A

Second stage of Piaget’s theory. 2-7 yrs. The child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events. Characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration

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9
Q

Centration

A

Tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others. E.g. “daddy can’t be a brother because he’s a father”

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10
Q

Concrete operational stage

A

Third stage of Piaget’s theory. 7-11. Children can understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others. Can think logically but not abstractly

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11
Q

Formal operational stage

A

Last stage of Piaget’s theory. 11+. Ability to think logically about abstract ideas

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12
Q

Vygotsky

A

Theorized that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his or her culture including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and languages

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13
Q

Fluid Intelligence

A

Consists of problem solving skills

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14
Q

Crystallized Intelligence

A

Consists of learned skills and knowledge

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15
Q

Delirium

A

A rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and is the result of physiological issues such as electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, a drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain

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16
Q

Mental set

A

The tendency to approach similar problems in the same way

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17
Q

Functional fixedness

A

The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner

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18
Q

Deductive (top-down) reasoning

A

Starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given

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19
Q

Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning

A

Seeks to create a theory via generalization

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20
Q

Heuristics

A

Simplified principles used to make decisions; rules-of-thumb

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21
Q

Availability heuristic

A

Used when trying to determine how likely something is. Decisions using this heuristic are based on how easily similar instances can be imagined

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22
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

Involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit prototypical, stereotypical, or representative images of the category

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23
Q

Base rate fallacy

A

Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information

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24
Q

Disconfirmation principle

A

The idea that when a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, this solution should be discarded

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25
Q

Confirmation bias

A

The tendency to focus on information that fits an individuals’ beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them

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26
Q

Overconfidence

A

A tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible

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27
Q

Belief perseverance

A

The inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary

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28
Q

Intuition

A

The ability to act on perception that may not be supported by available evidence

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29
Q

Recognition-primed decision model

A

Explanation of intuition. The brain is sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern. Over time, a person has gained an extensive level of experience that her or she is able to access without awareness

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30
Q

Emotion

A

The subjective experience of a person in certain situations

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31
Q

Consciousness

A

One’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within the world. The accepted states are alertness, sleeping, dreaming, and altered states

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32
Q

Alertness

A

A state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think

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33
Q

Reticular formation

A

A neural structure in the brainstem required to keep the cortex awake and alert

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34
Q

Beta waves

A

Have a high frequency. Occur when a person is alert or concentrating. Correspond to random neuron firing

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35
Q

Alpha waves

A

Occur when we are awake but relaxing with eyes closed. Slower and more synchronized than beta waves

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36
Q

Stage 1 of Sleep

A

As soon as you doze off. Characterized by the appearance of theta waves (CHECK THIS)

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37
Q

Theta waves

A

Characterized by irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages

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38
Q

Stage 2 of Sleep

A

As you fall more deeply asleep. Theta waves along with sleep spindles and K complexes

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39
Q

Slow-wave sleep

A

Stage 3 and 4 of deep sleep, when EEGs reveal large, regular delta waves and sleepers are hard to awaken

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40
Q

Delta waves

A

Low frequency, high-voltage sleep waves

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41
Q

Non-Rapid Eye-Movement (NREM) sleep

A

Stages 1-4

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42
Q

REM

A

Interspersed between cycles of NREM stages. EEG, HR, and breathing patterns are at the wakeful state, but muscles are paralyzed

43
Q

Cortisol

A

A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex and related to the sleep-wake cycle. Promotes wakefulness

44
Q

Coricotropin releasing factor (CRF)

A

Drives adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (which stimulates cortisol release) production. Increasing light can lead to its release from the hypothalamus. Released by the hypothalamus

45
Q

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

A

Stimulates cortisol release. Released by the anterior pituitary after stimulation by corticotropin releasing factor.

46
Q

Activation-Synthesis theory

A

Posits that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry

47
Q

Problem-Solving dream theory

A

Posits that dreams are a way to solve problems while you’re sleeping

48
Q

Cognitive process dream theory

A

Posits that dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness

49
Q

Neurocognitive models of dreaming

A

Seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes

50
Q

Dyssomnias

A

Refers to disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea

51
Q

Parasomnias

A

Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep. Includes night terrors and sleepwalking

52
Q

Insomnia

A

Difficulty falling or staying asleep

53
Q

Narcolepsy

A

Characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep. Symptoms include cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations

54
Q

Cataplexy

A

Loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger

55
Q

Sleep paralysis

A

A sensation of not being able to move while asleep

56
Q

Hypnagogic hallucination

A

Hallucinations that occur while falling asleep

57
Q

Hypnopompic hallucinations

A

Hallucinations that occur when one is waking up

58
Q

Sleep apnea

A

Inability to breath during sleep

59
Q

Night terrors

A

Periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep

60
Q

Sleepwalking/somnambulisme

A

Occurs during SWS

61
Q

Depressants

A

Reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety

62
Q

Alcohol

A

A depressant that increases activity of GABA. Causes generalized brain inhibition, resulting in diminished arousal at moderate doses. Also increase dopamine

63
Q

Alcohol myopia

A

A short-sighted view of the world caused by alcohol

64
Q

Barbiturates

A

Depressants. Increase GABA activity, creating sense of relaxation. Historically used as anxiety-reducing and sleep medications. Can cause coma or death when taken with alcohol.

65
Q

Benzodiazepines

A

Depressants. Increase GABA activity, creating sense of relaxation. Replacement for barbiturates because they are less prone to overdose. Can cause coma or death when taken with alcohol.

66
Q

Stimulants

A

Cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system, increasing the frequency of action potentials

67
Q

Amphetamines

A

Stimulants. Cause increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin and decreasing their re-uptake

68
Q

Cocaine

A

Stimulant. Decrease reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin

69
Q

Crack

A

Smokable form of cocaine

70
Q

Ecstacy (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine, MDMA)

A

Stimulant. Acts as a hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine.

71
Q

Opiates

A

Cause a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria. Natural derivatives of opium. Include morphine and codeine

72
Q

Opioids

A

Cause a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria. Semisynthetic derivatives of opium. Include oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin.

73
Q

Heroin

A

Substitute for morphine that just turns into morphine when injected

74
Q

Hallucinogens

A

Include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), peyote, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Increase HR and BP, pupil dilation, sweating, and increased body temp

75
Q

Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)

A

Active chemical in marijuana. Inhibits GABA activity and indirectly increases dopamine activity. Effects fall under the categories of stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen

76
Q

Mesolimbic reward pathway

A

Involved in drug addiction. One of four dopaminergic pathways.

77
Q

Sensorium

A

Sensory environment

78
Q

Selective attention

A

Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli

79
Q

Cocktail party phenomenon

A

Noticing your name being mentioned halfway across the room while you were engaged in a conversation

80
Q

Divided attention

A

The ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time

81
Q

Phonology

A

Refers to the actual sound of language

82
Q

Phonemes

A

Speech sounds

83
Q

Categorical perception

A

The ability to identify when subtle differences between speech sounds represent a change in meaning or not

84
Q

Morphology

A

Refers to the structure of words

85
Q

Morphemes

A

Building blocks, each of which connote a particular meaning

86
Q

Semantics

A

Refers to the association of meaning with a word

87
Q

Syntax

A

Refers to how words are put together to form sentences

88
Q

Pragmatics

A

Refers to the dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge

89
Q

Prosody

A

The rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices

90
Q

Errors of growth

A

Situations when a child applies a grammatical rule (often a morpheme) in a situation where it does not apply

91
Q

Nativist (biological) theory

A

Advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language. Chomsky’s thing.

92
Q

Transformational grammar

A

Chomsky’s study of how children learn how to make transformations in word order that retain the same meaning effortlessly at a young age, suggesting that the ability is innate

93
Q

Language acquisition device (LAD)

A

Innate ability. A theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules

94
Q

Critical period

A

2 yrs-puberty to learn a language

95
Q

Sensitive period

A

A time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability

96
Q

Learning (behaviorist) theory of language development

A

Operant conditioning as an explanation for language acquisition. Parents and caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like those spoken by the parents

97
Q

Social interactional theory of language development

A

Focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes. Language acquisition is driven by a child’s desire to communicate.

98
Q

Whorfian aka linguistic relativity hypothesis

A

Suggests that our perception of reality-the way we think about the world-is determined by the content of language

99
Q

Arcuate fasiculus

A

Connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas

100
Q

Aphasia

A

A deficit of language production or comprehension

101
Q

Broca’s (expressive)aphasia

A

Comprehend speech but can’t speak

102
Q

Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia

A

Motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost. Speech is nonsensical.

103
Q

Conductive aphasia

A

Caused by defect in the arcuate fasiculus. Speech production and comprehension are not affected; however the patient is unable o repeat something that has been said because the connection between these two regions has been lost

MCAT Psychology (12 decks)

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