Cognition, Consciousness, and Language Flashcards
Information processing model
Brain=Computer
Cognitive development
The development of one’s ability think and solve problems across the lifespan
Adaptation
The process of classifying new information into existing schemata
Accommodation
The process by which existing schemata are modified to encompass new information
Sensorimotor Stage
The first stage of Piaget’s theory. Birth-2 yrs. A child learns to manipulate their environment in order to meet physical needs
Primary circular reactions
The repetition of a body movement that originally occurred by chance because the child finds it soothing
Secondary circular reactions
Occur when manipulation is focused on something outside the body, such as repeatedly throwing toys from a high environment
Preoperational stage
Second stage of Piaget’s theory. 2-7 yrs. The child has begun to create mental representations of external objects and events. Characterized by symbolic thinking, egocentrism, and centration
Centration
Tendency to focus on one aspect of a situation to the exclusion of others. E.g. “daddy can’t be a brother because he’s a father”
Concrete operational stage
Third stage of Piaget’s theory. 7-11. Children can understand conservation and consider the perspectives of others. Can think logically but not abstractly
Formal operational stage
Last stage of Piaget’s theory. 11+. Ability to think logically about abstract ideas
Vygotsky
Theorized that the engine driving cognitive development is the child’s internalization of his or her culture including interpersonal and societal rules, symbols, and languages
Fluid Intelligence
Consists of problem solving skills
Crystallized Intelligence
Consists of learned skills and knowledge
Delirium
A rapid fluctuation in cognitive function that is reversible and is the result of physiological issues such as electrolyte and pH disturbances, malnutrition, low blood sugar, infection, a drug reaction, alcohol withdrawal, and pain
Mental set
The tendency to approach similar problems in the same way
Functional fixedness
The inability to consider how to use an object in a nontraditional manner
Deductive (top-down) reasoning
Starts from a set of general rules and draws conclusions from the information given
Inductive (bottom-up) reasoning
Seeks to create a theory via generalization
Heuristics
Simplified principles used to make decisions; rules-of-thumb
Availability heuristic
Used when trying to determine how likely something is. Decisions using this heuristic are based on how easily similar instances can be imagined
Representativeness heuristic
Involves categorizing items on the basis of whether they fit prototypical, stereotypical, or representative images of the category
Base rate fallacy
Using prototypical or stereotypical factors while ignoring actual numerical information
Disconfirmation principle
The idea that when a potential solution to a problem fails during testing, this solution should be discarded
Confirmation bias
The tendency to focus on information that fits an individuals’ beliefs, while rejecting information that goes against them
Overconfidence
A tendency to erroneously interpret one’s decisions, knowledge, and beliefs as infallible
Belief perseverance
The inability to reject a particular belief despite clear evidence to the contrary
Intuition
The ability to act on perception that may not be supported by available evidence
Recognition-primed decision model
Explanation of intuition. The brain is sorting through a wide variety of information to match a pattern. Over time, a person has gained an extensive level of experience that her or she is able to access without awareness
Emotion
The subjective experience of a person in certain situations
Consciousness
One’s level of awareness of both the world and one’s own existence within the world. The accepted states are alertness, sleeping, dreaming, and altered states
Alertness
A state of consciousness in which we are awake and able to think
Reticular formation
A neural structure in the brainstem required to keep the cortex awake and alert
Beta waves
Have a high frequency. Occur when a person is alert or concentrating. Correspond to random neuron firing
Alpha waves
Occur when we are awake but relaxing with eyes closed. Slower and more synchronized than beta waves
Stage 1 of Sleep
As soon as you doze off. Characterized by the appearance of theta waves (CHECK THIS)
Theta waves
Characterized by irregular waveforms with slower frequencies and higher voltages
Stage 2 of Sleep
As you fall more deeply asleep. Theta waves along with sleep spindles and K complexes
Slow-wave sleep
Stage 3 and 4 of deep sleep, when EEGs reveal large, regular delta waves and sleepers are hard to awaken
Delta waves
Low frequency, high-voltage sleep waves
Non-Rapid Eye-Movement (NREM) sleep
Stages 1-4
REM
Interspersed between cycles of NREM stages. EEG, HR, and breathing patterns are at the wakeful state, but muscles are paralyzed
Cortisol
A steroid hormone produced by the adrenal cortex and related to the sleep-wake cycle. Promotes wakefulness
Coricotropin releasing factor (CRF)
Drives adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) (which stimulates cortisol release) production. Increasing light can lead to its release from the hypothalamus. Released by the hypothalamus
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
Stimulates cortisol release. Released by the anterior pituitary after stimulation by corticotropin releasing factor.
Activation-Synthesis theory
Posits that dreams are caused by widespread, random activation of neural circuitry
Problem-Solving dream theory
Posits that dreams are a way to solve problems while you’re sleeping
Cognitive process dream theory
Posits that dreams are merely the sleeping counterpart of stream-of-consciousness
Neurocognitive models of dreaming
Seek to unify biological and psychological perspectives on dreaming by correlating the subjective, cognitive experience of dreaming with measurable physiological changes
Dyssomnias
Refers to disorders that make it difficult to fall asleep, stay asleep, or avoid sleep. Includes insomnia, narcolepsy, and sleep apnea
Parasomnias
Abnormal movements or behaviors during sleep. Includes night terrors and sleepwalking
Insomnia
Difficulty falling or staying asleep
Narcolepsy
Characterized by lack of voluntary control over the onset of sleep. Symptoms include cataplexy, sleep paralysis, and hypnagogic and hypnopompic hallucinations
Cataplexy
Loss of muscle control and sudden intrusion of REM sleep during waking hours, usually caused by an emotional trigger
Sleep paralysis
A sensation of not being able to move while asleep
Hypnagogic hallucination
Hallucinations that occur while falling asleep
Hypnopompic hallucinations
Hallucinations that occur when one is waking up
Sleep apnea
Inability to breath during sleep
Night terrors
Periods of intense anxiety that occur during slow-wave sleep
Sleepwalking/somnambulisme
Occurs during SWS
Depressants
Reduce nervous system activity, resulting in a sense of relaxation and reduced anxiety
Alcohol
A depressant that increases activity of GABA. Causes generalized brain inhibition, resulting in diminished arousal at moderate doses. Also increase dopamine
Alcohol myopia
A short-sighted view of the world caused by alcohol
Barbiturates
Depressants. Increase GABA activity, creating sense of relaxation. Historically used as anxiety-reducing and sleep medications. Can cause coma or death when taken with alcohol.
Benzodiazepines
Depressants. Increase GABA activity, creating sense of relaxation. Replacement for barbiturates because they are less prone to overdose. Can cause coma or death when taken with alcohol.
Stimulants
Cause an increase in arousal in the nervous system, increasing the frequency of action potentials
Amphetamines
Stimulants. Cause increased arousal by increasing release of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin and decreasing their re-uptake
Cocaine
Stimulant. Decrease reuptake of dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin
Crack
Smokable form of cocaine
Ecstacy (3,4-methylenedioxy-N-methylamphetamine, MDMA)
Stimulant. Acts as a hallucinogen combined with an amphetamine.
Opiates
Cause a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria. Natural derivatives of opium. Include morphine and codeine
Opioids
Cause a decreased reaction to pain and a sense of euphoria. Semisynthetic derivatives of opium. Include oxycodone, hydrocodone, and heroin.
Heroin
Substitute for morphine that just turns into morphine when injected
Hallucinogens
Include lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD), peyote, ketamine, and psilocybin-containing mushrooms. Increase HR and BP, pupil dilation, sweating, and increased body temp
Tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
Active chemical in marijuana. Inhibits GABA activity and indirectly increases dopamine activity. Effects fall under the categories of stimulant, depressant, and hallucinogen
Mesolimbic reward pathway
Involved in drug addiction. One of four dopaminergic pathways.
Sensorium
Sensory environment
Selective attention
Focusing on one part of the sensorium while ignoring other stimuli
Cocktail party phenomenon
Noticing your name being mentioned halfway across the room while you were engaged in a conversation
Divided attention
The ability to perform multiple tasks at the same time
Phonology
Refers to the actual sound of language
Phonemes
Speech sounds
Categorical perception
The ability to identify when subtle differences between speech sounds represent a change in meaning or not
Morphology
Refers to the structure of words
Morphemes
Building blocks, each of which connote a particular meaning
Semantics
Refers to the association of meaning with a word
Syntax
Refers to how words are put together to form sentences
Pragmatics
Refers to the dependence of language on context and pre-existing knowledge
Prosody
The rhythm, cadence, and inflection of our voices
Errors of growth
Situations when a child applies a grammatical rule (often a morpheme) in a situation where it does not apply
Nativist (biological) theory
Advocates for the existence of some innate capacity for language. Chomsky’s thing.
Transformational grammar
Chomsky’s study of how children learn how to make transformations in word order that retain the same meaning effortlessly at a young age, suggesting that the ability is innate
Language acquisition device (LAD)
Innate ability. A theoretical pathway in the brain that allows infants to process and absorb language rules
Critical period
2 yrs-puberty to learn a language
Sensitive period
A time when environmental input has maximal effect on the development of an ability
Learning (behaviorist) theory of language development
Operant conditioning as an explanation for language acquisition. Parents and caregivers repeat and reinforce sounds that sound most like those spoken by the parents
Social interactional theory of language development
Focuses on the interplay between biological and social processes. Language acquisition is driven by a child’s desire to communicate.
Whorfian aka linguistic relativity hypothesis
Suggests that our perception of reality-the way we think about the world-is determined by the content of language
Arcuate fasiculus
Connects Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas
Aphasia
A deficit of language production or comprehension
Broca’s (expressive)aphasia
Comprehend speech but can’t speak
Wernicke’s (receptive) aphasia
Motor production and fluency of speech is retained but comprehension of speech is lost. Speech is nonsensical.
Conductive aphasia
Caused by defect in the arcuate fasiculus. Speech production and comprehension are not affected; however the patient is unable o repeat something that has been said because the connection between these two regions has been lost
