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Psycolgy > Cognition > Flashcards

Cognition Flashcards

0
Q

Information processing (see Atkinson-Shiffrin model) {memory}

A

1) Encoding: transforming sensory input (info) from short-term to long-term memory, required focused attention and rehearsal
2) storage: retention of encoded information over time
3) retrieval: process of getting information out of storage

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1
Q

Cognition

A

The process of thinking in all it’s forms;includes memory, intelligence, creative thinking, problem solving and language

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2
Q

Sensory memory

A

Registers information from senses

  • our senses register infinitely more info than we actually process
  • holds info from the senses for a max of a few seconds
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3
Q

Iconic memory

A

Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

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4
Q

Echoic memory

A

Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

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5
Q

Selective attention

A

Focused awareness onto a stimuli in sensory memory -allows encoding into short term memory (STM)

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6
Q

Automatic processing

A

Unconscious encoding of info about
-space -time -frequency -previously well learned material
Unconscious encoding does not interfere with thinking about other things

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7
Q

Parallel processing

A

Processing which involves several information streams simultaneously

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8
Q

Effortful processing

A

Encoding that requires conscious, focused attention and effort

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9
Q

Short term memory (STM)

A

Aka working memory
Retains 7 +/-2 bits of info (George miller 1956)
Retains info for app 30 seconds
Integrates new info with current info/experience by:
-rehearsal
-elaborative rehearsal
- chunking

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10
Q

Rehearsal

A

Conscious repetition of information to: maintain information in STM or encode it for storage

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11
Q

Elaborative rehearsal

A

Repetition that creates associations between the new memory and existing memories in ltm

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12
Q

Chunking

A

Grouping information into meaningful units, increasing capacity of STM

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13
Q

Long term memory

A

(LTM) relativively permanent storage. Unlimited capacity, subdivided into explicit memory and implicit memory

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14
Q

Explicit memory

A

Aka declarative memory
Memory of facts and expiernces that one condo usually knows and can verbalized
Subdivided in semantic and episodic memory

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15
Q

Semantic memory

A

Memory of general knowledge or objective facts

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16
Q

Episodic memory

A

Memory of personally experienced events

– flashbulb memory

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17
Q

Flashbulb memory

A

Vivid memory of an emotionally charged event

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18
Q

Implicit memory

A

Aka nonce lattice memory
Memory of skills and procedures
learned from experience without having to refer to the experience
Includes procedural memory

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19
Q

Procedural memory

A

Type of implicit memory of: perpetual abilities, motor skills, and cognitive skills
“Once you learn something you never have to think about how you learned it”

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20
Q

Hierarchies

A

Concepts are arranged general to specific

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21
Q

Concepts

A

Mental representations of related things

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22
Q

Prototypes

A

The most typical examples of a concept

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23
Q

Semantic networks

A

Multiple links from one concept to another

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24
Q

Schemas

A
  1. frameworks of basic ideas and preconceptions about:
    a. people
    b. objects
    c. events
  2. based on past experience
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25
Q

Connectionism

A
  1. theory that memories are units of information stored throughout the brain
  2. memories are the result of interaction between the many units of information stored throughout the brain
  3. examples of connectionism include:
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26
Q

Neural network model

A

Memory formation, storage and retrieval are the results of communication between neurons

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27
Q

Parallel distributed model

A

Neural networks interact to store memories

Memories are created by modifying the strength of the connections between neurons

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28
Q

Thalamus

A

Encodes sensory memory into STM

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29
Q

Hippocampus

A

Along with the frontal and temporal lobes, is involved with establishing explicit long term memory

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30
Q

Amygdala

A

Processes strong, emotionally charged memories

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31
Q

Cerebellum

A

Implicit memory of skills

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32
Q

Forebrain

A

Long term potentiation (LTP): the strengthening of synaptic connections which is the basis of memory

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33
Q

Retrieval cue

A

A trigger to get information from storage

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34
Q

Priming

A

 activating, consciously or unconsciously, specific associations in memory

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35
Q

Recognition

A

 identification of something as familiar

• ex., multiple choice/matching on a test

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36
Q

Recall

A

 retrieval of information from LTM without any other information or cues
• ex., fill-in-the-blank/free response

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37
Q

Serial position effect

A

 stronger recollection of information at the beginning and the end of a list of words (Ebbinghaus)
• Primacy effect:
i. stronger recollection of the beginning
• Recency effect:
i. stronger recollection of the end

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38
Q

Encoding specificity principle

A

 retrieval depends upon the match between the way information is encoded and the way it is retrieved

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39
Q

Context-dependent memory

A

 recollection and recall is stronger in the context in which it is learned

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40
Q

Mood-dependent memory

A

 tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood

41
Q

State-dependent memory

A

tendency to recall information better when in the same internal state as when the information was encoded

42
Q

Mnemonic devices

A

 memory tricks/strategies that make information easier to remember
• Method of loci:
i. visualizes words in a list with familiar objects/locations
i. aids in memorization
• Peg word system:
i. uses association of terms to be remembered with a memorized scheme
• Acronyms:

43
Q

Reconstruction

A

 retrieval that distorts incomplete memories

• adds and/or changes information according to a personal schema

44
Q

Confabulation

A

combining and substituting memories from events other than the one you are trying to recall

45
Q

Misinformation effect

A

 incorporating misleading information into memories of a given event

46
Q

Tip of the tongue phenomenon

A

temporary inability to access information accompanied by a feeling that the information is in LTM

47
Q

Encoding failure

A

 inability to transform sensory information into short or long-term memory
 generally due to lack of attention

48
Q

Forgetting

A

 inability to retrieve previously stored information due to:
• failure to encode
• decay of stored memories and/or
• inability to access stored memories

49
Q

Interference

A

 learning some items prevents retrieving others, especially when the items are similar
• Proactive interference:
i. process by which old memories prevent the retrieval of newer ones
• Retroactive interference:
i. process by which new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories

50
Q

Repression

A

 tendency to forget unpleasant or traumatic memories hidden in the unconscious mind (Freud)

51
Q

Anterograde amnesia

A

 inability to create new LTM due to damage to the hippocampus

52
Q

Retrograde amnesia

A

memory loss associated with a traumatic event

53
Q

“G” factor

A

 theory developed by Charles Spearman(1863—1945)
 postulated that all mental performances could be encapsulated into:
• a single, general (g) ability factor and
• a large number of narrower, task-specific factors

54
Q

Fluid and crystallized intelligence

A

 concepts developed by Raymond Cattell (1905—1998)
 fluid involves ability to think in an abstract way
• sometimes refers to ability to learn new ideas
• sometimes involves creative thinking and problem-solving
 crystallized intelligence involves:
• acquired knowledge
• experiential knowledge

55
Q

Primary mental abilities

A

 concepts developed by L.L. Thurston (1887—1955)

 involves 7 factors which serve as measurements on some intelligence tests

56
Q

Triarchic

A 
• Theory of Intelligence: formulated by Robert Sternberg (1945--)
• takes a more adaptive approach to intelligence (see William James); involves:
i. Analytical:
1. ability to analyze and
2. problem-solve
i. Creative:
1. ability to develop novel ideas
2. intuitive
i. Practical:
1. “street” smart
2. adaptive intelligence
57
Q

Multiple intelligences

A 
 developed by Howard Gardner (1943)
 humans possess different cognitive abilities, which underlie different notions of intelligence, such as:
• Mathematical=
i. logic
i. abstraction
i. reasoning
i. computation
i. critical thinking
• Linguistic=
i. reading
i. writing
i. word memorization
i. verbalizing
• Spatial=
i. spatial judgment and
i. mental visualization
• Kinesthetic=
i. hand/eye coordination
i. muscular coordination
• Musical=
i. sensitivity to sound, rhythm, tones, pitch, and timbre
• Interpersonal=
i. interaction with others
• Intrapersonal=
i. self-reflection
i. self-knowledge
58
Q

Binet-Simon scale

A

One of the first intelligence tests
developed by Alfred Binet (1857—1911)
i. in response to the French government’s request to identify young children with learning disabilities
i. collaborated with Theodore Simon

59
Q

Stanford-Binet “intelligent quotient” (IQ) test

A

• developed by Lewis Terman (1877—1956)

i. Stanford professor of Education
i. adapted Binet’s scale
i. IQ= (ma/ca)100=?

60
Q

Wechsler scales

A
  • for adults and

* children

61
Q

Aptitude tests

A

predicts capacity or potential to learn

62
Q

Achievement tests

A

measures what has been learned

63
Q

Standardization

A

• administration and scoring of a test in a consistent or “standard” manner
• intended to ensure:
i. objectivity and
i. reliability

64
Q

Reliability

A

the extent to which a test measures something consistently

65
Q

Validity

A

• the extent to which a test measures what the test claims to measure

i. face:
1. on the “face” of it
2. a test appears to measure a topic (ex., math)
i. construct:
1. a test measures what is intended to be measured (ex., an algebra test that measures algebra)
i. content:
1. a test measures what has been covered in the topic
i. predictive/criterion:
1. a test positively correlates with future measurements
a. (ex., algebra exam scores during the year accurately reflect the final exam results)
i. convergent:
1. a measurement correlates with other measures as predicted

66
Q

Metacognition

A

thinking about how you think

67
Q

Trial and error

A

a. repeatedly trying possible solutions

b. discarding the failures in order to arrive at the correct solution

68
Q

Algorithm

A

a. step-by-step procedure

b. guarantees a solution to certain problems

69
Q

Heuristic

A

a. a mental shortcut to
b. simplify quickly or to solve a problem, but
c. does not guarantee a correct solution

70
Q

Insight learning

A

sudden appearance or awareness of a solution

71
Q

Deductive reasoning

A

reasoning from general to specific

72
Q

Inductive reasoning

A

reasoning from specific to general

73
Q

Mental sets

A

• barriers to problem solving
• when we apply only methods that have worked in the past
Lack of trying new methods

74
Q

Functional fixed ness

A
  • inflexible thinking

* for example, not being able to recognize new uses for an object because the common use is so familiar

75
Q

Availability heuristic

A

tendency to estimate probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind

76
Q

Representativeness heuristic

A

tendency to judge likelihood of things according to how they relate to a prototype

77
Q

Framing

A
  • the way an issue is stated

* can affect decisions and judgments

78
Q

Anchoring effect

A

• tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point

i. pulls responses toward that point

79
Q

Confirmation bias

A
  • tendency to notice/seek information that already supports preconceptions
  • to ignore information that refutes preconceived ideas
80
Q

Belief perseverance

A

• tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belief has been discredited

81
Q

Belief bias

A

• tendency for preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
i. makes illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid

82
Q

Hindsight bias

A

tendency to report falsely, after an event, that we correctly predicted the outcome

83
Q

Overconfidence bias

A

tendency to overestimate accuracy of beliefs/judgments

84
Q

Incubation

A

• putting aside a problem temporarily

i. allows a look at the problem from a different perspective

85
Q

Brainstorming

A

• generating lots of possible solutions to a problem

i. often done in a group dynamic

86
Q

Divergent thinking

A

thinking that produces many alternatives/ideas

87
Q

Convergent thinking

A

problem-solving directed toward a single, correct solution

88
Q

Behavioral perspective

A

language develops by imitating sounds

89
Q

Nativist perspective

A
  • humans have an innate capacity for acquiring language

* children are born with a universal sense of grammar (Noam Chomsky)

90
Q

Social interactivist theory

A
  • babies are biologically equipped for learning language

* language acquisition may be enhanced, inhibited, or perverted by experience

91
Q

Linguistic relativity hypothesis

A
  • language guides and determines thinking (Whorf )

* language influences thought

92
Q

Phoneme

A

 smallest unit of sound in spoken language

93
Q

Babbling

A

 infant’s spontaneous production of speech sounds

 begins around 4 months (related to phonemes)

94
Q

Morpheme

A

smallest unit of language that has meaning

95
Q

Grammar

A

 system of rules for language

 how words and sounds are combined to communicate

96
Q

Syntax

A

 system of rules for language

 the order by which words can be combined to communicate

97
Q

Semantics

A

 set of rules used to derive meaning from:
• morphemes
• words
• sentences

98
Q

Holophrase

A

 one-word utterances which convey meaning

99
Q

Telegraphic speech

A

 use of a noun and a verb

100
Q

Overgeneralization

A

 literal application of grammatical rules
 lacks understanding of exceptions to grammatical rules
• ex., lack of understanding of irregular verb forms.

Psycolgy (8 decks)

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