Cognition Flashcards
0
Q
Information processing (see Atkinson-Shiffrin model) {memory}
A
1) Encoding: transforming sensory input (info) from short-term to long-term memory, required focused attention and rehearsal
2) storage: retention of encoded information over time
3) retrieval: process of getting information out of storage
1
Q
Cognition
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The process of thinking in all it’s forms;includes memory, intelligence, creative thinking, problem solving and language
2
Q
Sensory memory
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Registers information from senses
- our senses register infinitely more info than we actually process
- holds info from the senses for a max of a few seconds
3
Q
Iconic memory
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Momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
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Q
Echoic memory
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Momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
5
Q
Selective attention
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Focused awareness onto a stimuli in sensory memory -allows encoding into short term memory (STM)
6
Q
Automatic processing
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Unconscious encoding of info about
-space -time -frequency -previously well learned material
Unconscious encoding does not interfere with thinking about other things
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Q
Parallel processing
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Processing which involves several information streams simultaneously
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Q
Effortful processing
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Encoding that requires conscious, focused attention and effort
9
Q
Short term memory (STM)
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Aka working memory
Retains 7 +/-2 bits of info (George miller 1956)
Retains info for app 30 seconds
Integrates new info with current info/experience by:
-rehearsal
-elaborative rehearsal
- chunking
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Q
Rehearsal
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Conscious repetition of information to: maintain information in STM or encode it for storage
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Q
Elaborative rehearsal
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Repetition that creates associations between the new memory and existing memories in ltm
12
Q
Chunking
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Grouping information into meaningful units, increasing capacity of STM
13
Q
Long term memory
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(LTM) relativively permanent storage. Unlimited capacity, subdivided into explicit memory and implicit memory
14
Q
Explicit memory
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Aka declarative memory
Memory of facts and expiernces that one condo usually knows and can verbalized
Subdivided in semantic and episodic memory
15
Q
Semantic memory
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Memory of general knowledge or objective facts
16
Q
Episodic memory
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Memory of personally experienced events
– flashbulb memory
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Q
Flashbulb memory
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Vivid memory of an emotionally charged event
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Q
Implicit memory
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Aka nonce lattice memory
Memory of skills and procedures
learned from experience without having to refer to the experience
Includes procedural memory
19
Q
Procedural memory
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Type of implicit memory of: perpetual abilities, motor skills, and cognitive skills
“Once you learn something you never have to think about how you learned it”
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Q
Hierarchies
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Concepts are arranged general to specific
21
Q
Concepts
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Mental representations of related things
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Q
Prototypes
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The most typical examples of a concept
23
Q
Semantic networks
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Multiple links from one concept to another
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Schemas
1. frameworks of basic ideas and preconceptions about:
a. people
b. objects
c. events
2. based on past experience
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Connectionism
1. theory that memories are units of information stored throughout the brain
2. memories are the result of interaction between the many units of information stored throughout the brain
3. examples of connectionism include:
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Neural network model
Memory formation, storage and retrieval are the results of communication between neurons
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Parallel distributed model
Neural networks interact to store memories
| Memories are created by modifying the strength of the connections between neurons
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Thalamus
Encodes sensory memory into STM
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Hippocampus
Along with the frontal and temporal lobes, is involved with establishing explicit long term memory
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Amygdala
Processes strong, emotionally charged memories
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Cerebellum
Implicit memory of skills
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Forebrain
Long term potentiation (LTP): the strengthening of synaptic connections which is the basis of memory
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Retrieval cue
A trigger to get information from storage
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Priming
activating, consciously or unconsciously, specific associations in memory
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Recognition
identification of something as familiar
| • ex., multiple choice/matching on a test
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Recall
retrieval of information from LTM without any other information or cues
• ex., fill-in-the-blank/free response
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Serial position effect
stronger recollection of information at the beginning and the end of a list of words (Ebbinghaus)
• Primacy effect:
i. stronger recollection of the beginning
• Recency effect:
i. stronger recollection of the end
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Encoding specificity principle
retrieval depends upon the match between the way information is encoded and the way it is retrieved
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Context-dependent memory
recollection and recall is stronger in the context in which it is learned
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Mood-dependent memory
tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one’s current mood
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State-dependent memory
tendency to recall information better when in the same internal state as when the information was encoded
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Mnemonic devices
memory tricks/strategies that make information easier to remember
• Method of loci:
i. visualizes words in a list with familiar objects/locations
i. aids in memorization
• Peg word system:
i. uses association of terms to be remembered with a memorized scheme
• Acronyms:
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Reconstruction
retrieval that distorts incomplete memories
| • adds and/or changes information according to a personal schema
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Confabulation
combining and substituting memories from events other than the one you are trying to recall
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Misinformation effect
incorporating misleading information into memories of a given event
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Tip of the tongue phenomenon
temporary inability to access information accompanied by a feeling that the information is in LTM
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Encoding failure
inability to transform sensory information into short or long-term memory
generally due to lack of attention
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Forgetting
inability to retrieve previously stored information due to:
• failure to encode
• decay of stored memories and/or
• inability to access stored memories
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Interference
learning some items prevents retrieving others, especially when the items are similar
• Proactive interference:
i. process by which old memories prevent the retrieval of newer ones
• Retroactive interference:
i. process by which new memories prevent the retrieval of older memories
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Repression
tendency to forget unpleasant or traumatic memories hidden in the unconscious mind (Freud)
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Anterograde amnesia
inability to create new LTM due to damage to the hippocampus
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Retrograde amnesia
memory loss associated with a traumatic event
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"G" factor
theory developed by Charles Spearman(1863—1945)
postulated that all mental performances could be encapsulated into:
• a single, general (g) ability factor and
• a large number of narrower, task-specific factors
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Fluid and crystallized intelligence
concepts developed by Raymond Cattell (1905—1998)
fluid involves ability to think in an abstract way
• sometimes refers to ability to learn new ideas
• sometimes involves creative thinking and problem-solving
crystallized intelligence involves:
• acquired knowledge
• experiential knowledge
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Primary mental abilities
concepts developed by L.L. Thurston (1887—1955)
| involves 7 factors which serve as measurements on some intelligence tests
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Triarchic
```
• Theory of Intelligence: formulated by Robert Sternberg (1945--)
• takes a more adaptive approach to intelligence (see William James); involves:
i. Analytical:
1. ability to analyze and
2. problem-solve
i. Creative:
1. ability to develop novel ideas
2. intuitive
i. Practical:
1. “street” smart
2. adaptive intelligence
```
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Multiple intelligences
```
developed by Howard Gardner (1943)
humans possess different cognitive abilities, which underlie different notions of intelligence, such as:
• Mathematical=
i. logic
i. abstraction
i. reasoning
i. computation
i. critical thinking
• Linguistic=
i. reading
i. writing
i. word memorization
i. verbalizing
• Spatial=
i. spatial judgment and
i. mental visualization
• Kinesthetic=
i. hand/eye coordination
i. muscular coordination
• Musical=
i. sensitivity to sound, rhythm, tones, pitch, and timbre
• Interpersonal=
i. interaction with others
• Intrapersonal=
i. self-reflection
i. self-knowledge
```
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Binet-Simon scale
One of the first intelligence tests
developed by Alfred Binet (1857—1911)
i. in response to the French government’s request to identify young children with learning disabilities
i. collaborated with Theodore Simon
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Stanford-Binet "intelligent quotient" (IQ) test
• developed by Lewis Terman (1877—1956)
i. Stanford professor of Education
i. adapted Binet’s scale
i. IQ= (ma/ca)100=?
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Wechsler scales
* for adults and
| * children
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Aptitude tests
predicts capacity or potential to learn
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Achievement tests
measures what has been learned
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Standardization
• administration and scoring of a test in a consistent or “standard” manner
• intended to ensure:
i. objectivity and
i. reliability
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Reliability
the extent to which a test measures something consistently
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Validity
• the extent to which a test measures what the test claims to measure
i. face:
1. on the “face” of it
2. a test appears to measure a topic (ex., math)
i. construct:
1. a test measures what is intended to be measured (ex., an algebra test that measures algebra)
i. content:
1. a test measures what has been covered in the topic
i. predictive/criterion:
1. a test positively correlates with future measurements
a. (ex., algebra exam scores during the year accurately reflect the final exam results)
i. convergent:
1. a measurement correlates with other measures as predicted
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Metacognition
thinking about how you think
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Trial and error
a. repeatedly trying possible solutions
| b. discarding the failures in order to arrive at the correct solution
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Algorithm
a. step-by-step procedure
| b. guarantees a solution to certain problems
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Heuristic
a. a mental shortcut to
b. simplify quickly or to solve a problem, but
c. does not guarantee a correct solution
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Insight learning
sudden appearance or awareness of a solution
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Deductive reasoning
reasoning from general to specific
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Inductive reasoning
reasoning from specific to general
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Mental sets
• barriers to problem solving
• when we apply only methods that have worked in the past
Lack of trying new methods
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Functional fixed ness
* inflexible thinking
| * for example, not being able to recognize new uses for an object because the common use is so familiar
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Availability heuristic
tendency to estimate probability of certain events in terms of how readily they come to mind
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Representativeness heuristic
tendency to judge likelihood of things according to how they relate to a prototype
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Framing
* the way an issue is stated
| * can affect decisions and judgments
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Anchoring effect
• tendency to be influenced by a suggested reference point
| i. pulls responses toward that point
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Confirmation bias
* tendency to notice/seek information that already supports preconceptions
* to ignore information that refutes preconceived ideas
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Belief perseverance
• tendency to hold onto a belief after the basis for the belief has been discredited
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Belief bias
• tendency for preexisting beliefs to distort logical reasoning
i. makes illogical conclusions seem valid or logical conclusions seem invalid
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Hindsight bias
tendency to report falsely, after an event, that we correctly predicted the outcome
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Overconfidence bias
tendency to overestimate accuracy of beliefs/judgments
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Incubation
• putting aside a problem temporarily
| i. allows a look at the problem from a different perspective
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Brainstorming
• generating lots of possible solutions to a problem
| i. often done in a group dynamic
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Divergent thinking
thinking that produces many alternatives/ideas
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Convergent thinking
problem-solving directed toward a single, correct solution
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Behavioral perspective
language develops by imitating sounds
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Nativist perspective
* humans have an innate capacity for acquiring language
| * children are born with a universal sense of grammar (Noam Chomsky)
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Social interactivist theory
* babies are biologically equipped for learning language
| * language acquisition may be enhanced, inhibited, or perverted by experience
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Linguistic relativity hypothesis
* language guides and determines thinking (Whorf )
| * language influences thought
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Phoneme
smallest unit of sound in spoken language
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Babbling
infant’s spontaneous production of speech sounds
| begins around 4 months (related to phonemes)
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Morpheme
smallest unit of language that has meaning
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Grammar
system of rules for language
| how words and sounds are combined to communicate
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Syntax
system of rules for language
| the order by which words can be combined to communicate
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Semantics
set of rules used to derive meaning from:
• morphemes
• words
• sentences
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Holophrase
one-word utterances which convey meaning
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Telegraphic speech
use of a noun and a verb
100
Overgeneralization
literal application of grammatical rules
lacks understanding of exceptions to grammatical rules
• ex., lack of understanding of irregular verb forms.
