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Biology Hope > Cloning and Biotechnology > Flashcards

Cloning and Biotechnology Flashcards

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1
Q

what is cloning

A
  • process of producing genetically identical cells or organisms from cells of existing organisms
  • natural / artificial
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2
Q

what is vegetative propagation

A
  • production of plant clones from non-reproductive tissue
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3
Q

what are the natural vegetative propagation methods

A

Rhizomes (Bamboo)
- stem structures that grow horizontally underground away from a parent plant
- nodes where shoots and roots develop

Stolons/Runners (Strawberries)
- grow above the ground on the surface of the soil
- development of new shoots and roots

Suckers (Elm Trees)
- shoots that grow from sucker buds present on shallow roots of a parent plant

Tubers (Potatoes)
- underground structures that act as a food store

Bulbs (Onions)
- underground food stores
- new bulbs develop from original bulbs

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4
Q

how can plants be artificially cloned

A
  • cells taken from original plant that is going to be cloned
  • cells from stem and root tips are used as they are stem cells
  • cells are sterilised to kill microorganisms
  • cells placed on a culture medium containing plant nutrients and hormones
  • cell divide and grow into small plant
  • out of culture medium and planted in soil - develop into plants that are genetically identical to original plant
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5
Q

what are the arguments for - artificial plant cloning

A
  • desirable genetic characteristics are always passed onto clones
  • tissue culture allows plants to be reproduced in any season
  • less space is required by tissue culture
  • produces lots of plants quickly
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6
Q

what are the arguments against- artificial plant cloning

A
  • undesriable genetic characteristics are always passed on
  • cloned plants have no genetic variability - one disease can kill
  • production costs of tissue culture is high - high energy - skilled professionals
  • contamination
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7
Q

what is natural animal cloning

A
  • sexual reproduction
  • egg fertilised - can split in early stages and develop into multiple embryos with the same genetic information
  • identical twins
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8
Q

what are the two ways of artificially cloning animals

A
  • artificial embryo twinning
  • somatic cell nuclear transfer
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9
Q

what is artificial embryo twinning

A
  • egg cell is extracted from a female cow and fertilised in a petri dish
  • fertilised egg divides at least once to form an embryo in vitro
  • individual cells from embryo are separated into petri dishes
  • each cell divides and develops normally - embryo forms in each petri dish
  • embryos are implanted into female cows
  • embryos develop inside and are then born
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10
Q

what is somatic cell nuclear transfer

A
  • somatic (diploid)cell is taken from Sheep A
  • nucleus is extracted and kept
  • oocyte (immature egg cell)is taken from Sheep B and nucleus is removed to form an enucleated oocyte
  • nucleus from A is inserted into enucleated oocyte
  • B contains genetic information from A
  • fuse together and stimulated to divide to produce an embryo
  • embryo is planted into a surrogate mother
  • lamb is born that is a clone of sheep A
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11
Q

what are the uses of animal cloning

A

Research Purposes
- test drugs
- variables that come from genetic differences are removed

  • save endangered animals from extinction
  • agriculture - increase yield of animals
  • genetically modified to produce useful substances
  • can produce just embryonic stem cells
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12
Q

what are the benefits of animal cloning

A
  • desirable genetic characteristics are always passed on to clones
  • infertile animals can be reproduced
  • increase population of endangered species
  • develop new treatments for disease
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13
Q

what are the negatives of animal cloning

A
  • difficult, time consuming, expensive
  • no genetic variability
  • clones may not live as long as natural offspring
  • using cloned human embryos as a source of stem cells - ethical issues - destroying a human life
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14
Q

what is reproductive cloning

A
  • production of a whole genetically identical animal
  • fusion of body cell with enucleated egg
  • test new drugs
  • save endangered animals
  • increase number of organisms with desired characteristics
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15
Q

what is non-reproductive cloning

A
  • production of genetically identical cells that don’t reproduce a whole organism
  • embryonic stem cells
  • potential to become any cell
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16
Q

what is biotechnology

A
  • industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs etc
  • microorganisms used
  • uses enzymes
17
Q

why should we use biotechnology

A
  • ideal growth conditions created
  • grow rapidly = fast products made
  • grown on inexpensive waste materials
  • grown at any time of the year
18
Q

brewing

A
  • to make beer yeast is added to a grain
  • yeast respires anaerobically using glucose from grain and produces ethanol and CO2
19
Q

Baking

A
  • yeast makes bread rise
  • CO2 produced by fermentation of sugars in the dough makes it rise
  • flat breads are made without yeast
20
Q

Cheese making

A
  • made from rennet
  • rennet contains chymosin which clots milk
  • chymosin obtained from genetically modified yeast
  • lactic acid bacteria convert lactose to lactic acid turning it sour and solidifies
  • production of blue cheese = adding fungi
21
Q

Yoghurt production

A
  • involves lactic acid bacteria to clot milk
  • creates a basic yoghurt
22
Q

Penicillin Production

A
  • fungi from Penicillium produces penicillin to stop bacteria growing
  • fungus is grown under stress in industrial fermentations
  • penicillin produced is collected and purified
23
Q

Bioremeditation

A
  • removal of pollutants from contaminated sites
  • pollutant-removing bacteria has nutrients added to allow it to multiply and thrive
  • bacteria breaks down pollutants into less harmful products
24
Q

what are the benefits of using microorganisms in food production

A
  • make single-cell protein - healthier alternative to animal protein
  • grown quickly, easily
  • simple growth requirements - grown on waste products, less land needed
  • can be cultured anywhere
25
Q

what is batch fermentation

A
  • microorganisms are grown in individual batches in a fermentation vessel
25
Q

what are the negatives of using microorganisms in food production

A
  • as conditions can be used for all microorganism there is a risk of contamination
  • may not like the idea of eating food grown on waste products
  • single-cell protein doesn’t have the same texture of flavour as real meat
26
Q

what is continuous fermentation

A
  • microorganisms are continually grown in a fermentation vessel without stopping
  • nutrients are put in and waste products taken out at a constant rate
27
Q

how are the conditions inside fermentation vessels regulated and maximises yield

A

pH
- constantly monitored by a pH probe
- enzymes can work efficiently

temperature
- kept constant by a water jacket that surrounds the vessel
- enzymes work efficiently

Access to nutrients
- paddles constantly circulate fresh nutrient medium around the vessel
- ensure constant nutrient access

Volume of oxygen
- sterile air is pumped into the vessel when needed
- always have oxygen for respiration

Vessel kept sterile
- superheated steam after each use
- kills unwanted organisms

28
Q

what is a closed culture

A
  • growth takes place in a vessel that is isolated from the external environment
  • extra nutrients aren’t added and waste products not removed
29
Q

what are the features of a standard growth curve

A

Lag phase
- population size increases slowly
- microorganisms have to make enzymes
- low reproduction rate

Exponential Phase
- population size increases quickly
- culture conditions at most favourable
- no. microorganisms double at each interval

Stationary phase
- population size stays level
- death rate = reproduction rate
- microorganisms die as there isn’t enough food and poisonous waste builds up

decline phase
- population size falls
- death rate is larger than reproductive rate
- food is scarce and waste is toxic

30
Q

what are isolated enzymes

A
  • mixed in with products of a reaction
  • products have to be separated from mixture using immobilised enzymes
  • enzymes attached to insoluble material so they cannot become mixed with products
  • substrate solution is run through a column of immobilised enzymes
31
Q

what are the three ways enzymes are immobilised

A
  • encapsulated in jelly like alginate beads, which act as a semi-permeable membrane
  • trapped in a silica matrix gel
  • covalently bonded to cellulose or collagen fibres
32
Q

what are the advantages of immobilised enzymes

A
  • columns can be washed and reused - reduces cost of running a reaction
  • product isn’t mixed with enzymes
  • more stable than free enzymes
33
Q

what are the benefits of immobilised enzymes

A
  • extra equipment = expensive
  • more expensive to buy than free enzymes
  • lead to a reduction in the enzyme activity as they cannot freely mix with substrate
34
Q

conversion of lactose to glucose and galactose - use of immobilised enzymes

A
  • some cannot digest lactose as they don’t produce lactase
  • fresh milk can be passed over immobilise lactase to produce lactose-free milk
35
Q

production of semi-synthetic penicillin - - use of immobilised enzymes

A
  • some bacteria are penicillin resistant
  • semi-synthetic penicillin produced and are effective against penicillin resistant bacteria
36
Q

conversion of dextrin’s to glucose - use of immobilised enzymes

A
  • glucose derived from starchy foods
  • starch breaks down into dextrins which are broken down into glucose by immobilised enzyme glucoamylase

Biology Hope (26 decks)

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