Clinical Theory Flashcards
what is clinical psychology?
Clinical Psychology is about diagnosing, explaining & treating mental illness. A range of psychological difficulties are dealt with including anxiety, depression, relationship problems, child & family problems & other serious mental health problems. We will be specifically focusing on schizophrenia & OCD (Obsessive Compulsive Disorder) which are both common mental health disorders in the UK today.
diagnosis explanation in terms of clinical psychology?
To assess a client, a clinical psychologist may undertake a clinical assessment using a variety of methods including psychological tests, interviews & direct observation of behaviour. Assessment may lead to therapy, counselling &/or advice.
Diagnosing a mental disorder is complex & can be both unreliable & invalid. Often there is no physical evidence & diagnosis relies on a list of symptoms & features that have to be present (E.g. To diagnose a phobia, there needs to be an intense & irrational fear, not just a fear. A fear becomes a phobia when it stops the person living their life successfully). These diagnoses are also often subjective, such as looking at how long the patient has been suffering, this adds to the complexity of diagnosis.
how do we explain mental health issues
Explanations for mental disorders are often not fixed or definite and there is often more than one explanation for a particular disorder. It could be argued that if there is more than one explanation, then this indicates more than one disorder. Perhaps there is a label attached to certain symptoms that are then thought of as one disorder (E.g. Schizophrenia can be caused by a single bad experience, this is called reactive schizophrenia. However, schizophrenia can be genetic, as there can be many cases of schizophrenia in one family. Also, the dopamine hypothesis suggests that schizophrenia is caused by the presence of excess dopamine).
how do we treat disorders
There are lots of ways of treating mental disorders including drugs, ECT (Electro Convulsive Therapy), psychotherapy, CBT (Cognitive Behavioural Therapy) & systematic desensitisation amongst many others. Some are used on their own & others are combined together to give the most effective treatment.
strengths and weaknesses of deviation from a statistical norm
Strengths:
- Patterns & trends of a mental health disorder can be plotted to see if certain disorders are getting more or less common in society. This gives a scientific & objective measure of a mental health issue or disorder based on a quantitative statistical norm value meaning that it can be compared over time.
Weaknesses:
- Deviations from the statistical norm that are above average are as uncommon as those below average. However, we would not always call someone ‘abnormal’ if
they scored high on a scale, therefore the term ‘abnormal’ is associated with negative stereotypes & may have a significant effect on those who are labelled ‘abnormal’.
- Some mental disorders are not statistically rare enough to be defined as ‘abnormal’ (E.g. Phobias). However, just because lots of people suffer from them this does not mean they are less important or that those suffering from them should be given less care.
explain deviation from a statistical norm
Abnormality can be defined as a ‘deviation from a statistical norm’. This provides a statistical (numerical) point of view where abnormality is any substantial deviation from the statistically calculated average. This is commonly seen with dyslexia, where ‘scores’ can be plotted & statistical deviations from the mean score can then lead to determinants of abnormality.
explain deviation from a social norm
Norms are expected ways of behaving in society according to the majority. Those members of society who do not think & behave like everyone else break these norms & are often defined as ‘abnormal’. The deviation from the social norm is built from these principles & is a socially based definition. Abnormal behaviour is seen as vivid & unpredictable, it causing observer discomfort & violates moral or ideal standards because this differs from what most people do. It is a process of comparing a person to others in their social world.
This suggests that mental illness can be considered socially constructed. Meaning that it differs from society to society & may change over time (E.g. Homosexuality was once considered to be a mental health disorder, but over time, as the norms of society have changed, it is no longer considered to be a disorder).
strengths and weaknesses of deviations from the social norm
Strengths:
- The idea that abnormality is a deviation from the social norm is appealing to clinicians, as that is how we think of abnormality. It fits in with human logic regarding illness because if people are behaving ‘strangely’ we think of them as abnormal, as they are not doing what we expect.
- Social norms are culturally specific & can differ from generation to generation, ethnic group, region & socio-economic group (E.g. A modern rave or the punk movement would have been seen as abnormal in the 19th century). This means that an objective measure across different cultures & generations is impossible.
Weaknesses:
- Luhrmann Et Al (2015) carried out a study of hallucinations & found that in some cultures hearing voices was considered a negative experience, whilst in others it was seen as a positive experience. Therefore, the social norms of a culture or community may determine not only your diagnosis, but your actual experiences of a mental health disorder.
- One issue with the deviation from social norms definition of abnormality is the idea of cultural relativism. Social norms differ between cultures & what is considered normal in one culture may be abnormal in another (E.g. As of 2024, there are 64 countries in the world, in which homosexuality is still illegal & therefore considered abnormal. However, in the rest of the world it is considered normal). The result of this is that there is no global standard for defining behaviour as abnormal & therefore abnormality is not standardised.
explain failure to function adequately and strengths
Failure to Function Adequately:
The failure to function adequately definition considers a person to be abnormal if they are unable to cope with the demands of everyday life. They may be unable to perform the behaviours that are necessary for day-to-day living (E.g. Self-care, holding down a job & interacting appropriately with others). Rosenhan & Seligman (1989) suggest the following characteristics that define failing to function adequately:
- Suffering.
- Maladaptiveness (Being a danger to themselves).
- Unpredictability & loss of control.
- Irrationality & Incomprehensibility.
- Causes observer discomfort.
- Violates moral & social standards.
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Many people engage in behaviour that is harmful or threatening to themselves, but we don’t class them as abnormal (E.g. People that smoke, drink alcohol or partake in adrenaline sports). One way of defining if someone is abnormal, is by seeing whether they can function to a reasonable standard & asking whether they are able to do the basic things that are needed to function in day-to-day life (E.g. Someone might be considered abnormal if they are so paranoid, that they can’t leave they homes. This would be considered as functioning inadequately & so they may have a mental abnormality. However, a person may be paranoid, but this doesn’t prevent them from living a reasonably normal life as they may still be able to do the things that are necessary for everyday living, so this definition would say that they are functioning normally).
Strengths:
- The failure to function adequately explanation helps to explain why different cultures have alternative ideas about what is abnormal behaviour & it takes into account that there is no universal rule about what is ‘abnormal’. This helps to increase the validity of diagnosing patients accurately.
strengths and weaknesses of deviation from ideal mental health
Strengths:
- Jahoda’s definition takes a positive & holistic stance in general. The definition focuses on positive & desirable behaviours, rather than focusing on negative & undesirable behaviours. Also, the definition considers the whole person, taking into account multiple factors that may affect their health & well-being. Therefore, the definition is comprehensible & covers a broad range of criteria.
Weaknesses:
- One weakness of the deviation from ideal mental health definition of abnormality is that the criteria proposed by Jahoda is unrealistic. There are times in everybody’s life when they will experience stress & negativity (E.g. When grieving the death of a loved one). However, according to this
definition, these people would be classed as abnormal as they circumstances are not taken into account, even if they are out of the individuals control. The standards set by the criteria are very high & it would need to be questioned how many of the criteria need to be absent for diagnosis.
- An issue with Jahoda’s definition of abnormality is cultural relativism as some of the criteria that is used when determining ideal mental health could be considered normal in the West (E.g. Emphasis on personal growth & development may be considered self-centred in collectivist cultures that favour community rather than individualism. Also, independence is not a sought after trait in collectivist cultures which means that it could be considered culture-bound).
explain the 4 d’s
Deviance – Behavior that significantly differs from societal or cultural norms.
Distress – Psychological suffering (e.g., anxiety, depression) experienced by the individual.
Dysfunction – Impairment in daily life, work, or relationships due to mental health issues.
Danger – Risk of harm to oneself or others.
explain deviation from ideal mental health
Jahoda (1958) suggested that abnormal behaviour should be defined by the absence of particular (ideal) characteristics. These are behaviours that deviate from ideal mental health. This is similar to the approach taken by medical professions when measuring physical health (E.g. Checking that blood pressure is within the normal range). She proposed six principles of ideal mental health:
- Having a positive view of yourself with a strong sense of identity (Having high self-esteem).
- Being capable of personal group & self-actualisation.
- Being independent of others & self-regulating (Having autonomy).
- Having a realistic & accurate view of reality.
- Being able to integrate within society & resist stress.
- Being able to master your environment (Juggling love, friendships, work & leisure).
Therefore, if an individual doesn’t demonstrate one or more of the criteria, they would be classified as abnormal according to Jahoda’s definition (E.g. Somebody who suffers from depression may have a negative view of themselves & would therefore be classed as abnormal.
strengths of evaluating diagnoses
- work for professionals + has a practical application as all features are recognisable and measured without a lot of training and using them alongside the DSM classification system.
(Davis 2009)
supports the validity of the DSM system in that various diagnosis are shown to focus on specific D’s showing each has value.
weaknesses evaluating diagnoses
The 4D’s causes subjectivity to occur as clinicians are interpreting what patients say during the clinical interview. This raises issues of the reliability of the diagnosis as two different clinicians may reach different conclusions.
Deviance dimensions = restricting human rights as social norms change over time e.g. homosexuality was viewed as a mental disorder but now its not.
describe the dsm and dsm-v
The DSM:
The Diagnostic & Statistical Manual of Mental Disorder (DSM) produced by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), provides criteria from which a mental health disorder can be diagnosed. It was first published in 1952 & has been revised numerous times. The DSM-IV was published in 1994 & the DSM-IV-TR was updated in 2000, containing over 200 new mental disorders. The DSM-V was. Released in May 2013.
The DSM was created in response to the need for a census of mental health disorders. The USA army had collated many descriptions & classifications of symptoms such as neurosis & psychosis, which later pulled together a list of symptoms, gradually developing to create the first DSM. This created a central system for diagnosing those with mental health problems in a more accurate, reliable & valid way.
For each disorder included in the DSM, a set of diagnostic criteria indicates symptoms that must be present & for how long, as well as a list of other symptoms, disorders & conditions that must be ruled out first to qualify for a particular diagnosis. These criteria help increase doctor reliability (The likelihood that 2 doctors would come up with the same diagnosis for a patient) when using the DSM.
The DSM-V:
Work on the DSM-V started in 1999, with 3 planning conferences held by the APA & the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Trustees approved the final DSM-V criteria in December 2012 & it was released in May 2013.
The 5th edition of the DSM represents the latest scientific thinking in the criteria content & organisational structure of mental health disorders. As well as the refinement of the diagnostic criteria for disorders, the organisation of the manual was also changed. The manual contains a table of contents, which signals how various conditions relate to each other, as well as the occurrence of mental disorders across a person’s lifespan. Both of these features can influence the care of the patient. The primary goals for the new framework of the manual were to help clinicians make a more accurate & consistent diagnosis & to help researchers better study how disorders relate to one another, which can lead to better treatment for patients.
20 Disorder Chapters:
Whilst the actual number of disorders has not significantly changed, 3 additional chapters were added to the DSM-V to better classify the disorders based on known similarities to one another. Certain disorders come under more representative & comprehensive chapter headings (E.g. Neurodevelopmental Disorders is a new heading that includes autistic spectrum disorders, intellectual developmental disorder, attention deficit disorder (ADD) & tic disorders). The chapter on substance-related disorders is now titles ‘Substance Use & Addictive Disorders’ & includes gambling disorder as the only behavioural addiction.
Other groupings of disorders have been moved around based on new scientific understanding of their principal features (E.g. Recent studies have shown that obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) involves distinct neurocircuits, meaning that it & other related disorders are now found in their own chapter, rather than in the chapter on anxiety disorders. Mood disorders have now been divided into 2 chapters – Bipolar & Related Disorders & Depressive Disorders).
describe disorders on a spectrum
Disorders on a Spectrum:
Whilst all disorders in the DSM-V remain in specific categories, measuring indicating the degree of acuteness of the disorders has been added to several diagnoses. Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) combines 4 different categorical disorders & conceptualises them as occurring along a single spectrum focused on dysfunctional social communication & restricted, repetitive behaviours or interests. Under the DSM-IV, patients with these symptoms could be diagnosed with autism, Asperger’s disorder, childhood disintegrative disorder or as a general pervasive developmental disorder that is not specified. However, the diagnoses were not consistently applied across clinicians due to the large overlap of shared characteristics. Researchers determined that these separate disorders are actually related conditions that lie on a single continuum. With ASD, some individuals show mild symptoms & others have much more severe symptoms, the spectrum allows clinicians to account for the variations amongst patients.
describe the ICD
The International Statistical Classification of the Causes of Diseases & Related Health Problems (ICD) was produced by the World Health Organisation (WHO) & is used in certain parts of the world. The same diagnostic codes are used as the DSM & the 2 systems are developing together. The ICD is now in its eleventh edition (The ICD-11).
The ICD includes general health & disease, along with mental health & behavioural issues. It is used to monitor the number of incidents & frequency of a disease or disorder & also the mortality & morbidity information (Number of deaths & number of diseases).
describe accounting for culture
Accounting for Culture:
Cultural background can greatly influence how an individual perceives & presents with psychiatric symptoms; it also impacts their diagnosis & treatment. Section III of the DSM-V addresses this important issue through cultural concepts of distress, which detail the ways that different cultures perceive different symptoms & syndromes. To help clinicians to gauge these factors, a cultural formation interview guide is provided to them, with questions to ask patients about their race, ethnicity, language, religion, social culture, customs & geographical origin. This interview provides an opportunity for individuals to define their distress in their own words & then clinicians can relate this to how others, who do not share their culture, see their problems. This gives the clinician a more comprehensive foundation on what their diagnosis may be & the care they will receive.
Throughout the DSM-V development process, they put a large amount of effort in to modify culturally determined criteria so that they would be more equivalent across different cultures. In Section II, specific diagnostic criteria were changed to better apply across diverse cultures (E.g. The criteria for social anxiety disorder now includes the fear of ‘Offending Others’ to reflect the Japanese belief that avoiding harm to others is more important than causing harm to oneself).
The newest manual also addresses cultural concepts of distress, which detail ways in which different cultures describe new symptoms. In the Appendix, they are described through cultural syndromes, signs of distress & explanations for their symptoms. These concepts assist clinicians in recognising how people in different cultures think & talk about their psychological problems.
describe conditions for further study
Conditions for Further Study:
Section III of the DSM-V introduces emerging measures & models to assist clinicians in their evaluation of patients. This area of the manual includes assessment measures, guidance on cultural formation, an alternative method for diagnosing personality disorders & conditions for further study. In previous editions of the DSM, content from this area of the manual was contained in the Appendix. By bringing this content into the main body of the manual, the APA hoped to bring greater awareness & attention to these tools.
Some proposed conditions had clear merit but were judged to need further research before they could be considered as formal disorders. The inclusion of Section III was subject to the amount of empirical evidence available on a diagnosis, diagnostic reliability or validity, a clear clinical need & the potential benefit to advancing research. Additional research may result in new information & data that can guide decisions in future DSM’s.
New conditions that have been included in the DSM-V’s Section III include:
- Caffeine Use Disorder – Relating to the potential addictive behaviour caused by excessive, sustained use of caffeine.
- Depressive Episodes with Short-Duration Hypomania – Exhibiting bipolar behaviour characterised by a hypomanic episode that lasts less than 4 days.
- Internet Gaming Disorder – This deals with the compulsive preoccupation some people develop in playing online games.
- Non-Suicidal Self Injury – Self-harm without the intention of suicide. This condition is regarded as a major problem on university campuses & a public health issue that needs to be better understood.
Whilst the conditions included in Section III are not intended for routine clinical use, clinicians can note the possible presence of certain disorders by designating patients as ‘Other Specified’ (E.g. ‘Other Specified Bipolar & Related Disorder’ would be the official diagnosis for a patient, but a clinical could refer to Section III for depressive episodes with short-duration hypomania by indicating that this condition is present when recording the diagnosis). This will allow clinicians to provide richer diagnoses for patients whose symptoms don’t completely fit within other named disorders.
pros and cons of getting a diagnoses
✅ Self-Understanding – Helps you understand your experiences and emotions.
✅ Access to Treatment – Opens doors to therapy, medication, and support.
✅ Validation – Confirms that your struggles are real and not just “in your head.”
✅ Community Support – Connects you with others who share similar challenges.
✅ Legal & Workplace Accommodations – May provide protections under disability laws.
Cons:
❌ Stigma – Some people may judge or misunderstand.
❌ Self-Doubt – You might internalize the diagnosis negatively.
❌ Medication Side Effects – If treatment includes medication, side effects may occur.
❌ Labeling – Can feel like being put in a box rather than seeing the full picture of yourself.
❌ Insurance & Costs – Treatment can be expensive or difficult to access.
differences between DSM and ICD
Authority & Organization
DSM: Published by the American Psychiatric Association (APA), primarily used in the U.S. and some other countries.
ICD: Published by the World Health Organization (WHO), used internationally for both physical and mental disorders.
Scope
DSM: Focuses solely on mental health disorders.
ICD: Covers both physical and mental health conditions.
Purpose & Use
DSM: Primarily used for psychiatric diagnosis, research, and clinical practice in mental health.
ICD: Used for global epidemiology, insurance billing, and medical record coding for all diseases, including mental disorders.
Revisions & Updates
DSM: More frequently revised with in-depth discussions on diagnostic criteria (e.g., DSM-5, DSM-5-TR).
ICD: Updated less frequently but provides a broader international perspective (e.g., ICD-10, ICD-11).
Coding Differences
ICD codes are used for insurance and global health statistics.
DSM includes ICD codes but provides additional diagnostic details relevant to mental health professionals.
reliability of the DSM and ICD
Reliability rests on the question of whether one person’s set of symptoms would lead to a common diagnosis by different physicians. So, if different doctors give different diagnoses for the same set of symptoms, then the diagnoses are not reliable & the treatment may not work.
How do we Maximise Reliability?
Gelder (1999) proposed that any classification will be of little value unless psychiatrists can agree on one set of criteria, only then can reliability be applied accurately, as it can be used over & over again getting similar results.
One measure to see whether a test is reliable is to use inter-rate reliability, which involves more than one person classifying the mental illness. In addition, the test-retest reliability method can be used, which looks at replicating & comparing the results. Reliability is often presented numerically. There are 2 common measures or reliability that both use the test-retest technique:
- The PPV (Positive Predictive Value).
- Cohen’s Kappa.
The PPV (Positive Predictive Value) is simply the proportion of people that keep the same diagnosis over time. It is usually expressed as a percentage. If depression has a PPV of 80, this means that 80% of people with a diagnosis of depression received a subsequent diagnosis of depression when re-assessed.
Cohen’s Kappa is slightly more complex. It is the correlation between the results of 2 rounds of diagnosis in a group of patients. Like all correlation coefficients, it is a number between 0 & 1. A Kappa of 1 would indicate complete agreement in 2 rounds of diagnosis of the same patients, which is an excellent reliability. A Kappa of 0 would indicate no agreement & very poor reliability.