Biological Theory

Question 1

what is biological psychology?

Answer 1

Psychology is about people and includes aspects of how the brain works as well as how social and environmental influences affect our behaviour.
The biological approach looks at CHEMICAL
ACTIVITY in the BRAIN, including how NEUROTRANSMITTERS ACT AT SYNAPSE to enable messages to be transmitted. Messages are also transmitted throuch HORMONES which determines what gender we are likely to be. The biological approach links to our evolutionary perspective and the inheritance of GENES and their influence on who we become.

Question 2

what are the biological key assumptions and ideas for neurotransmitter functioning?

Answer 2

The major biological influence on our behaviour and emotions is our nervous system (consisting of the brain, spinal cord and body nerves). It is made up of special cells called neurons, specialised for communication within the body. Messages are electrical within neurones but chemical between them.
The nervous system receives external information and triggers behaviours.
The brain controls many
different functions and has specialised areas for many of these eg, memory, vision and the control of sleep. The nervous system interacts with other parts of the body and controls them, eg stimulating the release of hormones from glands.

Question 3

what is hormonal transmission?

Answer 3

Another way that messages are passed is through hormones. These send messages more slowly than neurotransmitters and are used for different purposes.
Hormones have a large part to play in our
development of being male and female eg, androgens are “male” hormones and ostrogen is “female”.

Question 4

what are genetic influences?

Answer 4

We inherit 50% of our genes from our genetic make-up from our mother and 50% from our father.
These genes are important in determining our individual characteristics such as personality, abilities and behaviour. The effects of genes can be seen in physical abilities such as being able and unable
This is IMPORTANT because although single genes can control individual
characteristics (such as being able to roll your tongue), this is unusual for psychological variables.
In general psychological variables are the product of a combination of genes or the interaction between genes and the environment (NATUR AND NURTURE). Understanding the relative influence of genes and the environment can help us to identify the potential influence on mental health eg, in schizophrenia.

The genes tendencies that we INHERIT seem to have PASSED down to us through the mechanism of
“survival of the fittest”. Darwin proposed that all forms of life have evolved to suit their ECOLOGICAL NICHE. This means that the ENVIRONMENT - the habitat, climate, food available etc. decides which animals survives and therefore reproduces.
do geres that are passed on should help
those to survive. If it were not for understanding these mechanisms of survival of the most suited to the particular environment, then we would probably not study non-human animals, when looking for
unaciolanaine or numans

Question 5

describe what the brain is and how it functions?

Answer 5

The brain has many parts, for example the limbic system is linked to aggression and the medial temporal lobe and lateral cortex are thought to be where short-term memory occurs, and when it moves memory into long-term memory.
There are four lobes in the brain, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, the occipital lobe and prefrontal lobe.

Raine et al (1997) considered all four lobes when they looked for differences in the brain structure between 41 people pleading not guilty by reason of insanity to murder and 41 controls (key study later). Schmolck et al (2002) studied people with brain damage and how such damage might link to their memory problems, looking at the medial temporal lobe.
Damage to the prefrontal lobe has been
linked to aggression. For example, Phineas Gage, after an unfortunate accident, suffered damage to the prefrontal lobe, which seemed to affect his treatment.

Question 6

what is lateralisation?

Answer 6

The brain is in two halves, called hemispheres - LATERALISATION. Some structures are the same across two hemispheres, such as the lobes, so these are BILATERAL.
Therefore, “BILATERAL”
means two sides and “UNILATERAL” means one side.

Question 7

give the structure and function of the spinal cord?

Answer 7

structure: column of nerves between the brain and peripheral nervous system which connects the brain and brain stem and runs through the spinal canal inside the vertebrates - tube like

function: to carry info from various parts of the body to and from the brain, linking to the pns. A second function is that it is responsible for the reflect actions such as pulling your hand away from a hot plate.

Question 7

what are the 3 parts of the cns?

Answer 7

spinal cord, brain stem, the brain

Question 8

what are the nervous systems functions?

Answer 8

• collects processes and response to info. in the environment
• it coordinates the working of different organs and cells in the body

so info. comes from the external environment which the nervous system receives and coordinates from within the body to produce a response.
this is done through the nerve tissues which control the activities of the mind and body, the brain interprets the info and is a communication system.

Question 9

structure and function of the brain stem:

Answer 9

structure: connects the brain to the spinal cord. The brain stems structure is made up of the midbrain, pons, medulla.

Function: is to control messages from the brain to body, controls breathing, swallowing, heart rate etc

Question 10

structure and function of the brain:

Answer 10

structure: two near symmetrical hemispheres which are connected by “corpus callosum”. The outer layer of the brain the “cerebral cortex” is hihgly developed in humans which distinguishes human mental thinking/functioning to animals - 3mm think covers inner area of the brain

So cortex is outer and subcortical is below the cortex.

function:

to control contralateral in which the left hemisphere controls activity on the right side of the body and the right hemisphere control the left side movement.

it also the source of conscious awareness and decision making - it controls many of the brain functions including sensation, thought, movement, awareness and memory.

Question 11

describe lateralisation and localisation:

Answer 11

lateralisation:

2 halves of brain are functionally diff. and each hemisphere has functional specialisations for e.g. the left is dominant of lang. and the right excels in visual motor skills.

localisation:

involves the idea that certain functions e.g. memory, language etc have certain localisations and or areas of the brain. So, a particular function or process taking place in an area of the brain e.g. visual, auditory etc

Question 11

historical overview of the brain and cns:

Answer 11

Historical overview: there’s evidence that early humans understood some basic qualities of the brain. Fossil evidence shows trepanning was used in connection with migraines & epilepsy - humans had knowledge of brain functioning 10 000 years ago. Hippocrates, a Greek physician (father of medicine) was familiar with brain injuries and put forward the idea that each side, or hemisphere, of the brain served a distinct function. However, there was little development in our understanding of the role of brain structure until the early 1gth century when the since of phrenology was introduced by Franz Joseph Gall. The ‘science’ was mistaken in its belief that you could tell someone’s character by mapping the bumps on their head, but it at least reflected the idea that behavior was in some way linked to the brain.

Question 11

structure and function of the cerebral cortex:

Answer 11

The structure of the cerebral cortex involves both hemispheres being divided into 4 lobes - each named after the bones beneath it. So you have in your brain 8 lobes in total - 4 on each side.
Localisation theory suggests that each lobe has a different function (*these will be discussed later).
The cerebral cortex looks like a big walnut and appears wrinkly. It has many different
CONVOLUTIONS or ridges called GYRI (singular gyrus) and valleys called SULCI (singular sulcus).

The convolutions’ function increase the surface area, giving the cortex more processing power. The surface area of the cortex is estimated to be roughly 4 sides of A4 paper.

Question 12

structure and function of frontal lobe:

Answer 12

Structure - situated at the front of the brain, the frontal lobe makes up about 40% fo the cerebral Function - reasoning and higher-level cognitive functioning (executive functions) for example thinking, planning, decision-making, problem-solving, reasoning, emotional traits, speaking, voluntary
motor aciviv.
The BROCA AREA found by Pierre Paul Broca a surgeon working in the 1860s found a small area in the left frontal lobe responsible for speech production. Damage to this area causes APHASIA - slow, laborious speech which lacks fluency.
The frontal lobes also contain the MOTOR CORTEX. Structure - long strip of neurons that run down alongside the central sulcus on both hemispheres.
Function — each motor contex controls voluntaly
movements so the opposite side of the body (contralateral).
The SOMATOSENSORY CORTEX lies directly beside the sulcus (structure) and its function is to process sensory information from the skin. For example, touch, temperature, pressure - again in a
contralateral way
Neurons processing sensory information take up over half of th area of the sensory
somatosensory cortex.

Question 12

cerebellum structure and function:

Answer 12

The cerebellum is also known as the “little brain” with its structure having two hemispheres which are highly convoluted (wrinkly). Its function is to coordinate posture, balance and movement. It receives and integrates information from the spinal cord and other areas i.e., motor neurons.
It is 10% of
the brains entire weight but has almost 50% of its neurons.

Question 13

structure and function of corpus callosum:

describe the example of vision as well

Answer 13

The structure of the corpus callosum involves a collection of nerve cells (sense) which physically connect the two hemispheres below the cerebral cortex. Its function involves allowing communication between the two hemispheres. Key to collateral control of the body is that it integrates the activities of both sides of the body.
Control of the body is mostly contralateral - left hemisphere controls the right and right the left.

Vision is an area that needs communication between both hemispheres. The left eye sends
nesscoes one tomoan a me roneve sens messaoes oreleroran.
someone with a split corpus callosum would not have a message from the left going to the right
side of the brain, and the right eye would send information to the left side of the brain.
HOWEVER, there would be no communication between the two sides - as the corpus callosum is split. Speech is usually on the left side of the brain, someone would be able to say what they saw in the right eye, as the message goes to the left side of the brain, but what they saw in the left eye would not be communicated - as the corpus callosum to transfer to the left side (language) is split.

Question 13

structure and function of parietal lobe:

Answer 13

Structure - situated on the other side of the central sulcus, further back in the brain.
Function - somatosensory cortex function of processing sensory information. Also deals with visual information but is more to do with using spatial awareness and physical actions that require visual information. Plays a part in understanding geometry, maths (visualise spatial problems), knowing right from left,

Question 14

structure and function of occipital lobe:

Answer 14

Structure - located at the back of the brain, each lobe contains a primary visual cortex and several secondary areas (left/right/right-left).
Function - the primary visual cortex receives information first from the eyes and begins to process it.
The secondary visual cortex then sends the information to other parts of the brain, this helps understand colour and movement so we can then determine what we are seeing.

Question 14

structure of temporal lobe:

Answer 14

Structure - lie beneath the lateral sulcus of each hemisphere.
Function - each lobe contains an auditory cortex which deals with sound information coming mainly
trom the opposite cal
They process the location, volume and pitch or sounds and therefore have a
role in understanding language.
Inside the temporal lobe is the hippocampus - deals with memory
behaviour, spatial processing.
Karl Wernicke found the “Wernicke Area” when he was describing patients who had difficulty understanding language, producing fluent but meaningless speech - Wernicke’s aphasia, he located the area within the left temporal lobe.

Question 15

role and parts of limbic system:

Answer 15

(hypothalamus, thalamus, amygdala, hippocampus)

Consists of several structures for example, the amygdala which play a role in regulating emotional responses eg, aggression.
It also plays a role in memory and learning.
The limbic system is highly
interconnected with areas of the cortex, integrating cortical and subcortical parts.

Question 16

structure and function of thalamus: (limbic system)

Answer 16

Brains reply station.
It receives information from various senses (i.e., hearing. fight, touch but not
smell) and passes it on to the appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex for high-level processing. The thalamus is active, as it carries out some processing on its own.
So, it acts as a “gate” or filter of
information, it is thought to play a role in sleep, wakefulness and OCD.

Question 16

structure and function of hypothalamus (limbic system):

Answer 16

Sits below the (hypo) the thalamus and is the size of your finger. It controls motivational behaviours such as hunger, thirst and sex.
Key role in body “fight-or-flight”, response when stress occurs it
maintains balance of body function ie, temperature (homeostasis) It also regulates the activity of the endocrine system (hormones) via its connection with the pituitary gland and even secrete hormones.

Question 16

structure and function of scn (superchiasmatic nucleus):

Answer 16

Is a tiny region in the hypothalamus above the optic chiasm. It is responsible for controlling circadian rhythms (24-hour cycle).

Question 17

structure and function of hippocampus (limbic system):

Answer 17

Located in medial temporal lobe. Part of limbic system and is important in memory (LTM) and spatial
navigation

Question 18

describe the orbital frontal delayed gratification, delayed and immediate and the ventro-medical cortext.

Answer 18

1) being aware patience is needed for bigger award at end.

2) only looking at short term comfort and not looking at the long term.

3) is associated with emotions, decision making and regulating behaviour

Question 18

structure and function of amygdala (limbic system):

Answer 18

Almond shaped set of neurons within the medial temporal lobe. Involved in emotions. Part of the limbic system.

Question 19

structure and function of pons:

Answer 19

Contain mainly ascending and descending fibre tracts and fibres linked to the cerebellum.

Question 20

structure and function of medulla:

Answer 20

Contain important nuclei responsible for regulation of breathing and cardiac functions.

Question 21

describe the prefrontal cortex and aggression:

Answer 21

The prefrontal cortex is involved in depression, the lower the activity in the prefrontal cortex the more likely depression will occur. So, we know that the prefrontal cortex relates to emotions, a lack of regulation in the prefrontal cortex could lead to traits like aggression because our emotions are out of control and aggression results.
The prefrontal cortex has connections with many neurotransmitters like serotonin, dopamine and norepinephrine - these also link to emotions and so being connected to the prefrontal cortex seems logical.

The prefrontal cortex in the left hemisphere seems to be involved in positive emotions the right negative emotions - this means that the different parts of the brain have different functions as do the different hemispheres.

Question 22

difference between cortex and prefrontal cortex:

Answer 22

cortex is outer layer of the brain, the prefrontal is made up of diff parts involved heavily in our emotions.

Question 23

evidence of brain and aggression:

Answer 23

There is evidence suggesting that damage to the prefrontal has been linked to aggression for example, Phineas Gage, was a railway worker in the mid-west in USA. In 1948 he suffered an unfortunate accident when a tamping iron (an iron rod used for pushing explosives into drilled holes in rock in order to blow them up) set off the explosive and blew the iron rod up through Gage’s face and out of the top of his head. For the remaining 11 years of his life after the accident, his personality had a fundamental change from being a reliable person he became irresponsible and aggressive. His doctor concluded that the change done to his brain, which included severing the PREFRONTAL CORTEX, had led to the change in his character.

Bechara and van der Linden (2005) looked at several studies focusing on the prefrontal cortex and concluded that the area seems to be involved in the regulation of behaviour especially planning - suggested it is involved in regulating emotions and damage so some may not be able to control their aggression.

raine et al 1998 - researchers concluded that the offenders who had shown emotional impulsive aggression had not been able to regulate their behaviour because of low prefrontal cortex functioning, which fits with the explanation about prefrontal cortex functioning. (* contemporary study in full later).

Heinz et al (2011) looked at aggression and alcohol and suggests that environmental factor like stress are as important as genetic variations eg, serotonin.
These environmental stress and genetic
predispositions increase activity in the amygdale and lower activity in the prefrontal cortex.
These two
effects on activity in the brain link with alcohol use and also with impulsive aggression. Also as alcohol is drunk more, this can affect executive control more (in the prefrontal cortex), leading to more aggressive tendencies.

Evaluation - this seems to be a more holistic approach to looking at aggression compared to Raine et al who selects a reductionist standpoint - they are supposing that both nature and nurture are at play within aggression is involved.

Question 24

what is the limbic system:

Answer 24

involved in self preservation and body controls e.g. temp or fight/flight.

Question 25

describe hypothalamus and aggression:

Answer 25

The hypothalamus helps us balance the body (HOMEOSTASIS), it regulates temperature, hunger, thirst as well as our responses to anger, pain, aggression and sexual satisfaction. It is involved with regulating blood pressure, pulse, breathing and arousal levels through the autonomic part of the nervous system. It can detect leptin in the body, which is released if we overeat, therefore controlling appetite in addition to transferring lots of information. It regulates hormones including those that regulate sex functions, this is linked to aggressive behaviour in males via the production of TESTOSTERONE.

Hermans et al (1993) showed that electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus incites aggression.

Andy and Velamati (1978) carried out a study on cats by stimulating their hypothalamus and basil ganglia (part of limbic system) they had aggressive seizures. The aggression was measured by the amount of hissing and growling as the cat walked around freely.

Question 26

describe amygdala and aggression:

Answer 26

The structure within the limbic system most associated with aggression is the amygdala.

Downer (1961) removed one amygdala from monkeys brains and cut the optic nerve; the monkeys who had visual input that connected to the intact amygdala behaved normally to humans ie, aggressively whereas the other monkey group who did not have an intact amygdala they were much calmer which indicates the amygdala being involved in an aggressive response to perceived threat.

Coccaro et al (2007) studied people with intermittent explosive disorder (IED) a major feature of which is a tendency for outbursts of extreme reactive aggression ie hot blooded, impulsive.
Using fMRI they found an association between amygdala reactivity and aggression to images of angry faces.

• Swantje et al (2012) in Germany carried an MRI scanning of 20 healthy volunteers who were all women and right-handed. Each participants amygdala was measured and an aggressive score worked out.
  They all scored in the normal lifetime aggressive range; those with a higher
  aggressive score 16-18% had an amygdale of lower volume. They concluded that the volume of the amygdala can predict the personality trait of aggression in “normal” people.

Question 27

describe PAG and Aggression:

Answer 27

The midbrain contains an area called the PAG (periaqueductal grey matter) which links the
AMYGDALA and HYPOTHALAMUS with the prefrontal cortex. It has a role in coordinating and integrating behaviour responses to perceived internal and external stressors such as pain and threat.

Lonstein and Stern 1998 found that Lesions to the PAG in rats that have recently given birth show an increase in aggression when the rats are confronted with potential threat in the form of unfamiliar male rats being introduced to the cage.

Question 28

describe serotonin and dopamine (includes studies):

Answer 28

Serotonin in a neurotransmitter which dampens and downs down neural activity in the brain.

denson 20212 found normal levels of S are linked with self control therefore disruption to serotonin levels may be responsible for impulsive behaviour including aggression.

virkk unen et al 1994 compared levels of S production in violent impulsive and violent non impulsive offenders, they found S was lower in the impulsive offenders suggesting that disruption to serotonin is linked with impulsive behaviour.

Dopamine has inhibitory effects in some areas of the brain and also excites others.
It is important in
regulating motivation and our experience of rewards, Dongju Seo et al (2008) found that serotonin under activity stimulates dopamine over activity. They interact together in terms of impulsive and aggressive behaviour.

Question 29

2 strengths of brain and aggression:

Answer 29

link between certain areas of the brain, specifically the limbic system and hypothalamus of ind
aggression is supported by Andy and Velamati who showed that electrical stimulation of the hypothalamus gives an aggressive response in cats, so the hypothalamus is associated with aggression.

A link between certain areas of the brain, specifically the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex and aggression is supported by Swantje et al (2012) who showed that there is a negative correlation between the volume of the amygdale and self-reported lifetime aggression in humans.

Question 30

2 weaknesses of brain and aggression:

Answer 30

andy and velamati 1978 used cats in their study on the hypothalamus which cannot be directly generalised to human brain structures e.g. they do not have the same prefrontal cortex as humans and animals so application to human brain and aggression limited.

gorka et al 2013 asked people to look happy, angry or fearfull faces and tested their prefrontal cortex to amygdala connectivity under the influence of alcohol which does not represent everyday functioning therefore reduces validity as the scan has to take place while someone is processing info. in some way and this processing task is artificial - so not all brain aggression is valid.

Question 31

give an overview of hormones:

Answer 31

Hormones have many different roles, they can regulate the sleep wake cycle, metabolism and even eating habits. They affect people around puberty, affecting mood during the menstrual cycle and around menopause. Hormones are linked to diabetes which in itself affects behaviour. They can help to regulate stress.

Hormones are chemical messengers based within the body, unlike neurotransmitters they take
time to relay their message and they work on the body over time.
They work by combining to
receptor proteins in target cells and changing cell functions, cells then respond in different ways trigger
to the hormones.
“Behaviour is affected by hormones based on when they are released, and they
are received at the cell level and the receptors reached, and also how concentrated they are, which refers to their levels, The environment can also affect the release of hormones eg, stress/ or light can release hormones at different times.

Hormones travel via the circulatory system of the body via the bloodstream. The endocrine system is a chemical messaging system consisting of hormones that travel via the blood.
The endocrine which is made of thyroid, adrenal, thymus and pituitary glands make
hormones. In men they come from testes and women ovaries.

Each hormone affects certain target organs for example, the adrenal glands secrete hormones adrenaline and noradrenaline, which affect cells in organs throughout the body eg, heart. They have a crucial role in the fight-or-flight response to perceived stressors eg increasing heart rate, helping to fuel the aggressive response that may be needed to respond to a threat.
The pituitary gland is found in the brain and is important in hormone development,

y chromosome triggers release of oestrogen, foetus develops sexual characteristics,
anaregin insensitivity disorder - xy developing female characteristics

Question 32

describe function of pituitary gland in endocrine system:

Answer 32

Growth hormones

Produce adrencorticotropic, which produces cortisol - combats stress and maintains a healthy blood pressure.

Produces Antidiuretic hormone known as vasopressin which regulates water balance in the body.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone which helps to regulate the body’s metabolism.

Question 33

describe function of thymus in endocrine system:

Answer 33

Produces hormones linked to puberty.

Question 34

describe function of testes in endocrine system:

Answer 34

Produce testosterone which have a role in maintaining sex drive and producing sperm.

Question 35

describe function of pineal gland in endocrine system:

Answer 35

produces melatonin - sleep

Question 36

describe function of ovaries in endocrine system:

Answer 36

Produce ostrogen and progesterone which relates to women’s menstrual cycle and the development of breasts.

Question 37

describe function of thyroid in endocrine system:

Answer 37

controls metabolism

Question 38

describe function of adrenal in endocrine system:

Answer 38

Relate to heart functioning and distribute stored fat.

Question 39

describe testosterone and aggression:

Answer 39

There are different hormones involved in aggression such as testosterone, which is produced in spurts, so testosterone levels can rise suddenly and have an effect within minutes. It also varies seasonally in some animals, which is why red deer become aggressive during mating season in the spring.

Question 40

2 pieces of evidence for testosterone:

Answer 40

Wagner et al (1979) castrated mice and found that aggression levels dropped. When the pre-castration levels.
castrated mice were injected with testosterone, their aggression levels (le, biting), rose back to pre-casteration levels. This suggests that testosterone in mice has a role in aggressive behaviour.(animals)

Chang et al (2012) studied the mangrove rivulus fish and aggression by seeing how it reacted to its mirror image as well as exploring behaviour (how ready it was to approach a new shelter).
They wanted to see if 4 behaviours - boldness and learning in relation to hormones (cortisol and testosterone). He found aggression, exploring and boldness correlated with amount of testosterone before behaviours. Aggression and boldness also correlated with amount of cortisol before the behaviour. Aggressiveness and boldness showed a strong correlation, whereas learning did not. They concluded that cortisol and testosterone linked to the behaviour traits of aggression, boldness and exploring. (Animals)

Question 41

describe cortisol and aggression

Answer 41

Hormone that is produced in the adrenal glands and helps us to “wake up” in the morning in addition to managing our stress levels.
Cortisol seems to inhibit aggression, the same way that
testosterone increases it - most of the time

Question 42

2 pieces of evidence for cortisol

Answer 42

Adelson (2004) found that in rats when you stimulated the hypothalamus, which is an attack centre in rats led to a release of corticosterone, a stress hormone.
The stress hormone was
triggered just by stimulating the attached centre - there was no fighting.

Virkkunen (1985) reported low levels of cortisol in violent offenders, suggesting a link between cortisol and aggression.

Question 43

2 strengths of roles of hormones in aggression

Answer 43

There is lots of supporting evidence for the hormone testosterone being associated with aggression, Dabbs et al (1987) found that high testosterone hormones levels linked with prisoners who had committed violent crime and lower testosterone levels with those who had committed non-violent crime, which shows that hormones are important in aggressive behaviour for some groups.

• There is lots of supporting evidence, Adelson (2004) found a link between stress hormone cortisol and aggression centre in the brain of rats, which shows that hormones are important in aggressive behaviour, and correlated to aggressive behaviour however this is a rat study etc… generalisability etc…)

Question 44

2 weaknesses for hormones in aggression

Answer 44

Studies into aggression from a biological viewpoint look at certain areas for example, the influence of neurotransmitters such as serotonin and aggression, which is a simplistic view of aggression and is reductionist, Montoya et al (2011) takes a more holistic viewpoint looking at neurotransmitter, brain structure and function which gives a more accurate picture of what influences aggression.

• Many studies for example, Chang et al focus on aggression within animals, specifically fish which is not generalisable to humans, humans have other variables that animals may not have like motivation to be aggressive or planning aggressive acts, in additional to the animals studies being in artificial environment so generalisability is limited (A03)

Question 45

what is the aim of raine et als 1997 classic study on brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography

Answer 45

Wanted to see if there were brain differences between murders pleading not guilty by reason of insanity and non-murderers through using a PET scan.
They hypothesises that participants pleading NGRI (not guilty by reasons of insanity) would show brain dysfunction in area of the brain associated with violence.
- namely these were the prefrontal
cortex, angular gyrus, hippocampus, thalamus and corpus callosum.

Question 46

what is the procedure of raine et als 1997 classic study on brain abnormalities in murderers indicated by positron emission tomography

Answer 46

In the study there were 41 murderers (or people charged with manslaughter, but called murderers in this study) pleading insanity (with a mean age of 34.3 years) - there were 39 males and 2 females in each group and 41 non-murderers in a control group (mean age of 31.7 years). The study took place in the University of California and PET scans were done to gather evidence for the “insanity” plea or some other part of their trial, e.g. the jury decision making process.
The IV is whether a participant is a “murderer” or non-murderer. The DV was the glucose metabolism (ie, activity) in specific brain areas.
The experimental group were 41 criminals with convictions for murder or manslaughter who were being tested to gain evidence to support a claim of NGRI; of these - 6 had schizophrenia; 23 had suffered organic brain damage or head injury; 3 were substance users; 2 had an affective disorder; 2 had epilepsy; 3 suffered with hyperactivity and/or learning disability; and 2 were diagnosed with passive-aggressive/paranoid personality disorder. All participants remained medication-free for 2 weeks prior to the PET scan.
The control group was matched with regard to various features of age and gender, to make sure the data were comparable, (however they could not match for all variables for example, handedness, head injury and ethnicity - so this could be classed as independent measures not matched pairs and the matching was not complete).
They were screened for general health,
which included a physical examination, access to their medical history and a psychiatric review - participant were excluded if they had had a history of seizures, head trauma or substance misuse.
Consent was gained from all participants before the PET scan was administered.
All participants were given a continuous performance task (CPT) to complete, which consisted of a sequence of blurred numbers to focus on - practice.
Participants started the CPT as a practice
trial 10 minutes before being injected with fluourodeoxyglucose (FDG). 30 seconds before the tracer was injected the CPT was started so the brain activity was being recoded before the tracer was injected.
The task was one that had been shown to give an increase in glucose metabolic
rates in the frontal lobes, so would help to highlight brain areas of interest. After another 32 minutes on the CPT a PET scan was them completed to measure the metabolic rate in different areas of the brain in order to look at activity in those areas.

Slices of the brain scan were checked for glucose levels.
Boxes of the brain rather
were also examined and linked scan results to the suggested areas for violence. The glucose levels and the brain pictures of the murderers were compared with those of the controls.
The tasks that the participants did before the scans were compared to make sure there were no diff. in ability and so on, and there were none.

Question 47

what were the results for raines study?

Answer 47

Cortical Regions

Murderers had significantly lower glucose metabolism ie, less activity) than controls in the-following cortical regions:
Lateral and medial prefrontal areas
Left angular gyrus
Left and right superior parietal areas.
Murderers showed higher metabolism than controls int eh occipital lobe, a brain area not previously linked with violence.

Subcortical regions
Murderers have lower glucose metabolism than controls in the following subcortical regions - corpus callosum, left amygdala, and left medial temporal lobe (including the hippocampus) as indicated by previous research.

Murderers had greater activity in the right amygdala, the right medial temporal lobe and right thalamus (not previously indicated in violent behaviour).

Question 48

what is the conclusions for raines study?

Answer 48

The hypothesis was supported.
The findings did indicate that murderers pleading NGRI have
different brain activity from people who are not violent offenders - this can lead to impulsivity and loss of self-control as well as emotionality and an inability to modify behaviour.
The murderers had impaired functioning in areas of the brain previously identified (ie, amygdala) as involved with violent behaviour.
Abnormal activity with regard to symmetry in the two hemispheres in several areas was indicating an aggressive link between their behaviour being biological. For example, prefrontal deficits can mean loss of self-control, and murderers had different leve
region or une brain
The researchers concluded that dysfunctions of a single brain area cannot explain violent behaviour per se, and certainly not in a simplistic cause-and-effect manner. The most likely explanation is that networks of interaction brain areas are functionally impaired.
These impairments create a predisposition to violence that is only expressed in behaviour when social, environmental and psychological conditions are “right”.
So Raine concede that we should be very cautious in interpreting the findings behaviour there are other brain areas known to be involved in violence that they were unable to sci They acknowledged that their study cannot give us a complete explanation of the neurophysiology of violence for this reason. However, the study is valuable because it provides useful preliminary evidence for future research.

Question 49

3 strengths of raines study:

Answer 49

• Raine et al. study of murders NGRI used a sample of 39 males and 2 females from
  USA in both the control - non-murderers and experimental - murderers’ groups which is generalisable to the of the sampling frame (1), as there are more male murderers in the USA prison population than females so 39 males and 2 females is a representative sample to apply to investigating aggressive brain differences to (1)
• The PET scans of the 41 murders and 41 non-murders is a fairly objective technique as the results were visually interpreted for brain functioning by more than one researcher - inter-rater reliability (1), therefore it is a scientific study of aggressive brain functioning and is likely to give reliable findings which can be replicated and checked against each observers analysis of the murderers and non-murderers brains (1).

Raine et al’s. research on murderers pleading NGRI put in place a number of standardised controls, including eliminating any medication for 2 weeks prior to the scan in case this affected the brain measurements of the murderers and on-murderers (A01) which increased reliability of the brain activity results as extraneous variables such as the medication for example were eliminated from the final PET scan results (1).

Question 50

3 weaknesses for raine et als study:

Answer 50

Raine et al’s study on murderers pleading NGRI is not fully generalisable as the offenders were ones who had either killed someone but don’t remember or were unable to stand trial so are not typical of all murderers (1), therefore Raine’s results from the PET scan does not represent all violent/impulsive or non-violent murderers or the entire population as not everyone is a murderer and even if they are not necessarily the types of murderers Raine had in his research (1)

Raine et al. used PET scans to measure the activity of the brains of murderers pleading NGRI and a control non-murder group which may have lead to subjective results of the brains scans (1), this occurs when there needed to be an interpretation of some images that were blurred therefore this reduced the reliability of the results as there is no guarantee that the images were interpreted accurately so the murderers brains may not have shown the level of differences suggested by Raine in his conclusions (1).

• Raine et al. used a CPT (continuous performance task) to measure the brains of the
  41-control non-murderers and 41 experimental murderers’ group which is unrealistic as it has no connection to violence or violent behaviour (1) therefore reducing the validity of the results on impulsive brain areas as a task would need involve active interaction with a situation that the murderers were first in (1).

Question 51

describe darwins evolutionary theory (no aggression)

Answer 51

Evolutionary theory (Darwin 1942) would suggest that genes have developed over time, through a mechanism of survival of the fittest (like many other organisms).
Each of us inherits -
genes from our biological parents which mean that the characteristics that come from our genes are also passed on.
Only the strongest genes are passed on according to evolutionary theory over time. This affects changes in DNA, cell structure etc. which can ensure that a species continues when positive DNA is changed, however this can also influence the extinction of a species which can no longer survive within the current environment.
This means that NATURAL SELECTION is important in that some characteristics are inherited because they aid survival of an organism so that there can be reproduction and passing on of genes, whereas some characteristics do not aid survival in the environment so there is no reproduction of those genes.
The most suitable genes survive to go on from generation to generation - so the fittest survive, as Darwin termed it “Survival of the Fittest”.
Darwin considered finches and the differences in
their beaks to suit the different environments in which they survive/live. Those with “suitable” beak shapes in certain environments would feed, survive and reproduce, thus passing on the genes for the suitable beak shape.

Question 52

describe genetic drift

Answer 52

Genetic Drift is when an organism inherits 50% of its genes from each biological parent (not 100% of each), so not all genes are passed on. Therefore “genes” can “drift” out of the gene pool. When genes are lost the genetic variation becomes more limited because the genes available to be inherited are reduced.

Question 53

describe genetic mutation

Answer 53

Genetic Mutation is a permanent change in the gene sequence, for example due to a virus or damage of radiation. The effects depend on the mutation, some you can see, others you cannot, and some will prevent the organism from functioning properly. Mutations can lead to new DNA which can be advantageous. Those that are advantageous to the organism will change the gene pool to benefit reproduction so the mutated gene will be inherited to ensure survival - different species will emerge.
* For example, giraffes that have slightly longer necks have an advantage over shorter ones when searching for food, making them more likely to live to reproductive age. They will then pass their alleles (genes) on and shorter next giraffes will not - so may not survive.

Question 54

describe sexual selection

Answer 54

Sexual Selection influence of evolution acting on the success of reproduction and involves certain traits that may convey disadvantage are there for sexual advantages of special reproduction - to attract potential mates. For example, a peacock’s tail is heavy and could potentially hinder it escaping from predators but in terms of attracting a sexual partner it is a sign of genetic fitness ie, he carries such a burden and yet still manages to survive.

Question 55

describe kin selection (including direct and inclusive fitness)

Answer 55

Kin Selection involves animals who call out warnings about predators and put their survival in
Natural selection argues that those saved are likely in some
way to be related to the animal that puts themselves in danger. By drawing predators away, they
realed toet e,surs, hetkats, prare d ts: Ths ts own as KIN SELECTION (Hamton 1953
related to e.g., bats, meerkats, prairie dogs.
- cited C Brain 2015).
Direct fitness - in natural selection is the idea that an individual’s genes are passed on that individual survives in an environment long enough to reproduce their genes.
Inclusive Fitness is the idea that genes survive when relatives survive and reproduce too.

Question 56

describe group selection:

Answer 56

Group Selection involves the idea that by protecting the group the individuals in the group benefit as they might not survive on their own.
This is again direct fitness as the individuals
genes urike thesha give sute group d-etraton seng, EUROSOCIAL (BATEA 9596)
survival of the genes that give such group co-operation strength. EUROSOCIAL (BATRA refers to the group that functions as a whole, with different roles allocated to those with different abilities, in order for success. For example, in the case of ants and bees (carry all the DNA for the group), there is a queen, soldiers and workers - they have specific role.

Question 57

2 strengths of natural selection theory

Answer 57

The theory of natural selection suggests
that genes are passed down through reproduction
and those inherited features in an organism that do not aid survival do not get passed on according to Darwin which is supported by observations from animals’ studies like
Darwin’s finches in which they evolved to fit in with their habitat.

The theory of natural selection suggests that genes are passed down through reproduction and those inherited features in an organism that do not aid survival do not get passed on according to Darwin, which is supported by other researcher like Kettlewell who studied the evolved change in moths to different habitat as in non-industrial woods light colour would be camouflage and in industrial woods dark colour would be camouflage.

Question 58

2 weaknesses of natural selection theory:

Answer 58

Darwin’s suggested through his theory of natural selection that we have evolved and become organisms that exist in society due to changed over the years, however creationists theory suggests that god created the universe and all organisms so there are alternatives to Darwin’s ideas of human behaviour.

Darwin created a theory and evidence that confirmed truth which is not good science as scientists aim to falsify theories finding evidence that challenged ideas which Darwin did not do as he only found support for his theory (popper).

Question 59

describe evolution, natural selection and aggression in humans

Answer 59

Traits that have evolved are generally agreed to be a positive thing for humans, otherwise they would not have aided survival. Aggression in certain environments is useful for example, when offspring of a partner are threatened - so it is a protective trait that humans have evolved.
The structures and function of our brains has evolved to serve an adaptive function in the
ENVIRONMENTO EVOLUTIONARY ADAPTATION (EEA). In the EEA males were physically stronger and capable of protection of mates and offspring and foraging for food. Males evolved to be more aggressive and would give them the benefit in mating choice, successful females picked males that would give them good genes. Female evolution took a different route in more verbal and emotional aggression ie, downgrading potential challenges their partners.
Buss (1999) proposed that females would still be in competition for the best males, but achieved victory denigrating other females verbally to potential mates so as to make these other women appear less attractive.

Question 60

describe genetic strategies to relationship threats

Answer 60

Buss and Shackleton (1997) gathered evidence to see what men would do when their relationship was threatened. They concluded that;
men give into women (debasement) and threaten any males around them - both these strategies aided survival of the gene pool.
Women on the other hand use different strategies, they threaten to leave the man if he is unfaithful and also to use verbal threats like “he is taken”. Women know they are carrying on the gene pool in carrying the infant, whereas the man needs to ensure the offspring is his.

Question 61

describe male retention strategies and give 2 pieces of evidence

Answer 61

Involve behaviour that men display to prevent partners from straying.
Buss (1988) identified two retention strategies used to control partners:
Direct guarding of the female to restrict her movements.
- Negative inducements to preventher straying suche as financial control or threat of
violence.
- damestic vidence.
Evidence
Wilson and Day (1996) suggested that male guarding involve male vigilance over a partner’s behaviour for example, checking who they’ve been seeing, coming from work early, keeping tabs on their whereabouts etc.
Shackleton et al (2005) surveyed 461 men and 560 women in committed relationships. They found a positive correlational relationship between men who used male retention techniques (direct guarding and negative inducement) and their use of violence. Female results also confirmed this. men also tended to use emotional manipulation as a mate retention strategy -a form of non-physical aggression.

Question 62

describe the adaptive trait of jealousy

Answer 62

Therefore, aggressive gene traits could be passed onto future generations to aid survival. For example - Jealousy
In terms of evolution, aggression shown to a person who is threatening a male-female pair is acceptable and common sense. The male needs to reproduce to pass on their gene and if someone threatens the pairing, this cannot happen - so aggression will result to protect the pairing.
Therefore jealousy and resulting aggression can be seen as a survival trait.

Dobash and Dobash (1984) found when studying violence against women that it often came about through jealousy. Sexual jealousy was found to lead to aggression, so aggression ensures survival of genes.

Question 63

describe the adaptive trait of guarding offspring:

Answer 63

Involves parents directing aggression at other people (or animals) that threaten their children.
This aggression is adaptive, and each genetic child is a genetic positive for passing in inherited genes, so parents by behaving aggressively are protecting their investment. Steiner (2016) suggested that protecting offspring is one of the situations in which female quite often behave s aggressively as males.
If these ideas are valid then we would expect to see differences in the structures of male and female brains and chemistry leading to more aggression in males.

Question 64

give 2 strengths of evolutionary theory as an explanation of human aggression:

Answer 64

The theory of natural selection suggests that aggression benefits survival and passing of genes when the male uses it to protect the pair-partnership, this is supported by Buss and Shackleton (1997) who showed that males will threaten other males aggressively through the adaptive trait of jealousy to ensure the female is protected.

Darwin’s evidence from his survival of the fittest ideas supports the nativist viewpoint that aggression is innate, present from birth and an unavoidable (and even a positive) part of human behaviour including aggression to ensure survival.

Question 65

give 2 weaknesses of evolutionary theory as an explanation of human aggression:

Answer 65

There is a great deal of experimental evidence suggesting that testosterone levels are associated with aggression for example, Mazur (1983) showed a marked increase in inter-male fighting around puberty when it is known that there is also a rapid increase in testosterone so evolutionary ideas of natural selection as an explanation for human
aggression is not the only one.

Evolutionary aggressive behaviour protects the individual pairing by showing aggressive behaviour towards other males, however this puts the male in a dangerous situation, they might put themselves in a situation which involves them using a lot of energy or even getting killed which leaves the partner on their own and in a vulnerable situation - therefore jeopardising the gene continuation.

Question 66

what is neuroplasticity

Answer 66

Is the brains’ ability to create new neural pathways based on new experiences. It refers to change in neural pathways and synapses that result from changes in behaviour, environment and neural processes, and changes resulting from bodily injury. Neuroplasticity has replaced the formerly held theory that the brain is a physiological static organ and explores how the brain changes throughout life.

Functional recovery is the brains way of the transfer of functions from a damaged area of the brain after trauma or the other undamaged areas. It does this through its neural unmasking in which “dormant” synapses open connections to compensate for a nearby damaged areas of the brain. This allows for new connections in the brain to be activated, this recovering damage to occurring to specific regions.

Therefore, rerouting involves neural connections being made between a neuron and other active neurons. Sprouting is the growth of new dendrite extensions allowing existing neurons to form new connections.

Question 67

what is the structure and function of a neuron

Answer 67

A neuron is a nerve cell, the basic unit of nervous system. Of the roughly 100 billion neurons in the human nervous system, about 80% are located in the brain. Neurons vary in size from less than a mm to 1 metre long – but all share the same structure.

The function of the neuron is to allow the nervous system to fulfil its communication function by transmitting signals electrically and chemically.

types:

Motor Neurons carry messages from the CNS, along nerves in the PNS to effectors in the body (ie, muscles/glands). They have short dendrites and long axons. Sensory Neurons carry messages from sensory receptors (ie, touch, temperature) along nerves in the peripheral nervous system (PNS). They have long dendrites and short axons. Relay Neurons connect sensory and motor neurons, and also connect to other relay neurons. They have short dendrites and short axons and are only found in the CNS.

Question 68

how does a neuron action potential work

Answer 68

The electrical trigger that passes along the axon & stimulates the neuron to activate & release neurotransmitters as a result of synaptic transmission. Refers to the actual method by which the nerve impulse passes down the axon of the neuron to stimulate the release of neurotransmitters, this is a tiny electrical impulse that’s triggered by a change in the electric ‘potential’ of the neuron itself.

Neurons resting membrane potential (the difference in electrical potential, how ready the neuron is for action on each side of the cell membrane while the cell is at rest) = 70mV, meaning the inside of the neuron has a slight negative charge in relation to the outside of the neuron. When a neuron receives a message from another neuron, this chemical message can either stimulate an excitatory postsynaptic potential, which means that it’ll slightly depolarise the neuron, reducing the its charge, or it can hyperpolarize the neuron, increasing its charge & stimulating an inhibitory postsynaptic potential.

· Excitatory postsynaptic potential: temporary depolarisation of a neuron as a result of positively charged ions flowing into the cell that make it more likely to fire an action potential

· Inhibitory postsynaptic potential: changes in polarisation of a neuron that makes it less likely to fire an action potential

When a neuron has received enough excitatory messages, or at least more excitatory messages in comparison to the number of inhibitory messages, that are sufficiently strong to reach the neuron’s own threshold, an action potential is triggered.

This usually happens when the neuron’s charge reaches approx. -55mV. The action potential sends an impulse along the axon of the neuron towards the axon terminals at the end of the neuron.

Question 69

synaptic transmission process

Answer 69

A signal begins as an electrical impulse (an action potential) within the presynaptic neuron

When the electrical impulse arrives at the end of the axon on the pre-synaptic knob, chemical messengers called neurotransmitters are released from structures called vesicles at the presynaptic membrane

Neurotransmitters are released into the synaptic cleft as a chemical substance from the presynaptic neuron after the action potential has occurred

Neurotransmitters diffuse across the synaptic cleft and temporarily bind with receptor sites on the postsynaptic membrane

This action stimulates the postsynaptic neuron to generate another electrical impulse (action potential) that then travels down the axon of the postsynaptic neuron

The neurotransmitter molecules are then destroyed by enzymes or recycled to prevent continued stimulation of the second neuron, which could cause repeated impulses to be sent

The re-absorbed neurotransmitter may be used again by the presynaptic neuron

Question 70

describe summation

Answer 70

The excitatory and inhibitory influences from the neural network are summed.

· Firing of the postsynaptic neuron depends on summation (adding together) of signals over time (temporal summation) or space (spatial summation).

· If the net effect is inhibitory then the postsynaptic neuron is less likely to fire.

· If the net effect is excitatory then the postsynaptic neuron is more likely to fire and, the inside of the postsynaptic neuron becomes positively charged, depolarisation takes place and the action potential travels down the dendrite towards the cell body and then along the axon.

Question 71

describe neurotransmitters

Answer 71

The whole of the NERVOUS SYSTEM is made up of interconnected neurones; they are long and thin, and ideal for carrying messages from one place to another. Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that act and fuse across the neurons in the brain. This allows the brain to process through and memories. They are released into the synaptic gap and taken up by receptors of dendrites of another neuron, to send a message. They can also inhibit a message; they can be left in the gap, not used but re-used.

• Neurotransmitters can either have an inhibitory or excitatory effect. Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g. serotonin) reduce the potential difference across the postsynaptic membrane through the closure of the voltage-dependent sodium ion channels, reducing the likelihood that an action potential will be generated.
• Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. dopamine) increase the potential difference across the postsynaptic membrane through triggering the opening of more voltage-dependent sodium ion channels, increasing the likelihood that an action potential will be generated.

A postsynaptic neuron can therefore receive inhibitory OR excitatory input from a neural network. “Firing” depends on “summation” and “adding together” of signals.

Question 72

strengths of neurotransmitters and transmission at the synapse

Answer 72

Jovanovic (2008) using PET scans looked at levels of serotonin in women (serotonin linked to depression and women more prone to low levels), focusing on PMDD (Pre-menstrual dysphoric disorder). They found that the synaptic transmission, involving neurotransmitters eg, serotonin related to mood, including depression, therefore neurotransmitters transmission are a valid explanation of depressive behaviour.

aggression or whether they are a response to aggression being carried out. Raleigh et al (1991) found that vervet monkeys fed on serotonin-increasing diets showed reduced aggression, supporting the serotonin explanation (although there may be difficulties generalising to humans). - talk about anxiety
- SSRI (Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitor) is a prescribed drug for depression; it enhances the levels of serotonin in the brain. The drug works by blocking the reuptake of serotonin (regulates mood) which leaves more serotonin at the synapse which is taken up again by the receptors on other neurons and mood is improved.

Question 73

weakness of neurotransmitters and transmission at the synapse

Answer 73

Research into synaptic transmission has been completed on animals such as Ferrari et al. (2003) provide support for the role of serotonin in aggressive behavior in rats which may not be generalisable to human synaptic transmission using neurotransmitters as human and animal brains are not the same, human brains involve consciousness and emotional elements, which animals may not.

Brain transmission and behaviour such as aggression has evidence suggesting this is due to neurotransmitter transmission such as dopamine and Alzheimer’s, however this is a reductionist approach so we may need to consider nurture environment explanations such as social learning theory in which human observe and imitate others behaviour and not just based of neurotransmitter transmission.

Question 74

describe recreational drugs

Answer 74

Recreational drugs: used in absence of medical grounds but taken by users for personal enjoyment referred to as psychoactive drugs as they alter brain function, changing mood, perception or conscious experience.

Recreational drugs tend to work in two different ways:

1. Agonists: Some drugs (nicotine, cannabis, heroin) imitate natural neurotransmitters, ‘fooling’ the brain into activating pleasure centres However, they are much more powerful than most naturally occurring neurotransmitters.
2. Antagonists: Other drugs (amphetamines) massively boost the number of normal neurotransmitters, triggering the brain’s pleasure centres.

The brain contains a “reward pathway” which when activated gives us pleasant experiences and emotions, which encourages us to do it again. We are likely to repeat the experience if the reward is pleasant. Drugs hijack the reward system and produce pleasurable feelings.

Question 75

strengths of recreational drugs on CNS

Answer 75

Drug therapies have been created to support those suffering addiction for example, drug replacement therapy involves replacing the harmful drugs such as heroin with less harmful substances that mimic the same effects such as methadone allowing the user to reduce dosage and come off their addiction safely allowing the receptors to return to normal. - Heroin has a depressant effect on the CNS – it slows down CNS activity, including neurons involved in pain. Reduces GABA activity, which leads to overactivity of dopaminergic neurotransmitters in the reward pathways of the brain. Heroin is usually injected and reaches to brain mostly in its processed form – morphine. Morphine binds with a specific opioid receptor at the synapse found in the cerebral cortex, limbic system and hypothalamus. Endorphins the body’s natural painkillers involves heroin binding with receptors of the natural opioid system to massively enhance the natural responses. Long-term heroin effects on neural transmission includes down regulation. Regular use of heroin over time me nans that opioid receptors on postsynaptic neurons are constantly binding with morphine molecules, which desensitises them to the effects of the drug. This is the basis of tolerance.

Drug therapies have been created to support those suffering addiction for example, drug replacement therapy involves replacing the harmful drugs such as heroin with less harmful substances that mimic the same effects such as methadone allowing the user to reduce dosage and come off their addiction safely allowing the receptors to return to normal. - use same a01

Question 76

weaknesses of the effects of recreational drugs on the proccess in the cns

Answer 76

cannabis limits activity in the hippocampus and other areas, stimulates dopamine, too simplistic on whether it excites or inhibits - reliable explanation needed

we dont fully know everything about synapaes as the lack of technology does not allow us to get to the level of synaptic transmission, scans etc, - reliable?

Question 77

describe phinease gage, individual differences

Answer 77

A famous example of the importance of the brain for shaping personality is Phineas Gage, an American railway worker who suffered a terrible accident in 1848. The railway workers used dynamite to make the ground flat for laying the rail tracks, but an unexpected explosion nearly killed Gage. It blasted a “tamping iron” (a metre-long iron nail) through Gage’s skull; the iron entered through Gage’s cheek, passed through his brain and shot out of the top of his head. Amazingly, Gage survived the accident, thanks to treatment from Dr John Martyn Harlow. However, his personality greatly changed. Harlow reported that Gage became

After he died, 12 years later, Gage’s skull was preserved and studied. Modern computer-assisted design has reconstructed the damage to his brain: it was damage to the frontal lobe, which is responsible for decision-making and self-restraint. The Gage study is often taken to show that damage to the frontal lobe changes personality. This links with the classic biological study by Raine et al. which shows that the frontal lobe was under-active in brain scans of murderers. We know that the frontal lobe (in particular, the prefrontal cortex) handles self-control and rational behaviour.

However we must be wary that this was not a documented study and that the evidence before and after could be easily discredited.

Question 78

describe individual differences and neurotransmitters

Answer 78

Individual differences are not considered within the process of synaptic transmission through the use of neurotransmitters as it is assumed that everyone’s brain uses this way of sending messages.

Cultural Differences

· Some cultural differences may be due to biological explanations such as genes and hormones. So if there is a gene for certain behaviour ie, predisposition that parents/grandparent have then it could be that offspring will inherit this gene in terms of aggressive behaviour.

· In terms of evolution is a culturally specific survival trait is important in terms of the preservation of future offspring them that trait will be passed on for example, aggressive behaviour of male to ward off potential male threats to their female.

Gender and Individual Differences

Hormones: men’s brains are shaped in the womb by the male growth hormone testosterone and testosterone is much higher in men than women; it is linked to aggression. The female growth hormone is oestrogen. However, women’s body’s also produce testosterone, but usually in smaller amounts than men.

Brain lateralisation: Male brains are more lateralised than female brains. This means that male brains have functions located in one hemisphere or the other but female brains are more likely to carry out these functions with both hemispheres.

Neurotransmitters: There is evidence (Jovanovic, 2008) that women’s brains have more serotonin receptors than male brains.

HOWEVER, different people have differences in neurotransmitter functioning, such as a lack/or excess of a particular neurotransmitters. The process might be the same, but the messages are affected by individual differences. Sometimes with low serotonin levels might benefit from medication to increase them, thus alleviating the symptoms of depression, for example.

Question 79

what did freud notice

Answer 79

Freud noticed patients with unexplained physical symptoms often had underlying mental or emotional issues, often linked to childhood events.

Question 80

iceberg model for freud

Answer 80

Conscious Mind: The small, visible part above water. It holds our current thoughts and awareness.
Pre-Conscious Mind: The just-below-surface part, containing memories and feelings that can surface with effort.
Unconscious Mind: The massive, hidden part below water. It stores instincts, fears, and repressed memories.
Freud’s psychoanalysis helps uncover the unconscious mind, often through interpreting dreams and Freudian slips.

Question 81

the psyches 3 parts for freud

Answer 81

The Psyche’s Three Parts:

Id:
Present from birth, driven by basic desires and the “pleasure principle.”
Irrational and selfish, similar to the brain’s limbic system.
Ego:
Develops in toddlers, functioning on the “reality principle.”
Logical and decision-making, akin to the brain’s pre-frontal cortex.
Mediates between the id’s desires and the real world.
Super-Ego:
Forms around ages 4–6, based on the “morality principle.”
Represents our conscience, inducing guilt when the ego’s plans conflict with moral standards.

Question 82

describe defence mechanisms for freud

Answer 82

Repression: Blocking troubling thoughts from awareness.
Denial: Ignoring uncomfortable realities.
Projection: Accusing others of feelings one denies in oneself.
Displacement: Redirecting emotions to a safer target.
Sublimation: Transforming desires into acceptable activities like art or work.

Question 83

2 strengths for freud

Answer 83

Catharsis is a matter of ordinary experience - many people do feel calmer and more at ease after venting aggression on the sports field, in the gym or over a game of Dungeons & Dragons.

Freud’s idea of the instinctive id and the rational ego links in with the neuroscience of the brain. The limbic system is the brain’s “emotion centre” and the amygdala specifically handles fear and aggression. The pre-frontal cortex handles rational decision-making and

receives messages from the amygdala, which it may or may not act upon. Therefore Freud’s theory of aggression has scientific credibility by being supported with brain research.

Question 84

weakness of freud

Answer 84

Albert Bandura in his 1961 study makes a big point of the fact that the children who observed the aggressive role models displayed more aggression themselves, not less. This goes against what catharsis would suggest and there are alternative explanations such as observing aggression makes you more aggression as suggested by bandura SLT and not less.

Other psychologists have offered very different interpretations of the Oedipus Complex and unconscious thanatos. People may have had biological problems like Charles Whitman’s brain tumour which might have caused him to go on his murdering spree and nothing to do with is unconscious urges according to Freud.

Question 85

describe aim and procedure for brendgen twin study

Answer 85

To see if social aggression could be caused by genes or the environment in 6-year-old twins.

To see if social aggression shared the same cause as physical aggression in 6-year-old twins

To see if one type of aggression leads to another type in six-year-old twins

Procedure

The data gathered was from 2 sources, one by their teacher and one by their classmates. The ratings were gathered in the spring of their school year to ensure that twins were well known by those providing the ratings of their behaviour. Written consent (ethics) was obtained from all the parents of children in the class and the research questions and questionnaires were approved by the Institutional Review Board.

Teacher ratings were based on agreement with a series of statements from items on the Preschool Social Behaviour Scale (PSBS-T; Crick et al 1997) and the Direct and Indirect Aggression Scales (Bjorkvist et al 1992)l an example of which was “To what extent does the child try to make others dislike a child” (social Aggression) and “To what extent does the child get into fights” (physical aggression).

Scores given by the teachers for each statement was done on a 3-point scale,

0 never

1 sometimes

2 often

Peer ratings of the twins were done by giving each child in the twin’s classes a booklet containing photos of every child in the class. Every child was then asked to circle three pictures of the children they thought matched four different behaviour descriptions, for example, “Tells others not to play with a child” (social aggression), and “Gets into fights” (physical aggression) - each twin was given a physical and social aggression score from the teachers’ ratings, and any peer selection on the social or physical aggression descriptors that were made of each twin were also recorded.

A comparison was made between the twins and single children with regard to parental education, yearly income, age of parents when the children were born and marital status, and it was thought that the twins were not different in these aspects.

Question 86

describe results of brendgen

Answer 86

A high correlation between the ratings of MZ twin pairs on physical aggression than between same-sex DZ twin pairs – this was the same for both teacher and peer rating scores for the twins.

· Scores for social aggression were roughly equally correlated between MZ and DZ twin pairs.

· These would suggest that in relation to aim one, physical aggression may well be caused by genetic factors whereas social aggression can be explained by shared environmental factors.

· In relation to aim two a correlation was found between social and physical aggression in children, which can be explained by genes rather than the fact that they shared a similar environment. This could be explained by genetics or exposure in their environment to aggressive role models.

· Aim three results suggest that physical aggression may lead to social aggression, but not the other way round. Perhaps the expressions of aggressive tendencies changed as children grow as they may learn more “socially acceptable” ways to show aggression. As children they display aggression physically but as they grow they find other ways to express this.

Question 87

strengths of brendgen

Answer 87

Brendgen uses established questionnaires to measure aggression. These can easily be replicated, making the study reliable.

The parents of the twins agreed for their children to be in the study, so presumptive consent was given by a responsible adult. The teachers also agreed and this is presumptive consent too.

Twin studies are a valid way of studying nature versus nurture. Since MZ twins share 100% of their genotype, but DZ twins no more than 50%, but both share the same homelife, if MZ twins have similar behaviours where DZ twins do not, this is likely to be due to the genotype.

Question 88

weakness of brendgen

Answer 88

Nonetheless, the study does get children to look at pictures of their classmates and judge them. This might have a bad impact on friendships, especially if the children told each other afterwards who they had selected as the “hitter and biter” or the “tale-bearer”. This could lead to hurt feelings or worse – revenge! This goes against the social responsibility of ethical research and might create risk for the children who participated.

In Brendgen et al.’s (2005) study not all the twins were DNA tested for identicalness (1) which means some of the twins may have been in the wrong group making the results unreliable (1).

6 year olds were used meaning developmental changes were still occurring, the sample was also of twins which is not representative of the wider population.
CA: this was a large sample size.

Question 89

ID, psychodynamic approach

Answer 89

The psychodynamic approach focused on
internal aggression in the form of unconscious
thoughts and desires generating frustration, and
therefore aggression.

Psychodynamic psychology considers a model
rather than “reality” in claiming that a lot of our
mind is not accessible, and that our conscious
mind is comparatively small and even then not
knowable in a physical way.

evidence:

Recently since brain scanning has become more
widely available some researchers believe that
biological psychology is beginning to meet up
with the psychodynamic approach for example,
the limbic system is for emotional and not
rational thinking, which matches with the
psychodynamic idea that emotions and feelings
such as desires are in the unconscious and not
in our rational mind.

Question 90

ID, biological approach

Answer 90

Biological psychology focuses on internal mechanisms to explain aggression, such as brain structure and functioning eg, the amygdala is an internal structure linked to aggressive behaviour.

Biological psychology looks at physical structures eg, neurotransmitter messages in the brain to show aggression and actual brain functioning.

evidence

Recently since brain scanning has become more widely available some researchers believe that biological psychology is beginning to meet up with the psychodynamic approach for example, the limbic system is for emotional and not rational thinking, which matches with the psychodynamic idea that emotions and feelings such as desires are in the unconscious and not in our rational mind.

Question 91

biology of aggression to real life, sexual jealousy

Answer 91

Sexual feelings come from the limbic system. As
part of its job in regulating emotions, the amygdala
handles trust & intimacy. It’s responsible for helping us recognise familiar faces & feel secure around people we’re on intimate terms with. Sexual jealousy (when we feel insecure around people we’re intimate with) is also produced by the amygdala.

Since violence is largely a male pastime, cultures that empower women tend to move away from the glorification of violence & are less likely to breed dangerous subcultures of rootless young men - Stephen Pinker (2011)

Question 92

biology of aggression to real life, social aggression

Answer 92

Not all aggression is physical aggression. There’s also teasing, name-calling, rumour-spreading socially
excluding people. Social aggression has 2 components: - Indirect aggression, which is covert (hidden), such as spreading malicious gossip - Relational aggression, which is overt (in the open) but non-physical, such as breaking off a friendship, pulling faces or “bitchiness” - 30% of children may be the target of it at some point in time (Analitis et al., 2009). A study by Atlas & Pepler (1998) revealed that other children were present in 85% of all bullying episodes on a school playground, yet these bystanders intervened to stop the bullying just 15% of the time.

Gordon Ingram (2014): young children show more physical aggression than social aggression, but, as they grow into adolescence, this reverses & social aggression (gossiping, rumour-spreading) dominates.