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Biology 1010 > Chapters 12 and 13 - DNA Technology/How Populations Evolve > Flashcards

Chapters 12 and 13 - DNA Technology/How Populations Evolve Flashcards

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1
Q

What is biotechnology?

A

the manipulation of organisms or their components to make useful products

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2
Q

What are examples of biotechnology today?

A
  • studying/manipulating genetic material
  • modifying specific genes
  • moving certain genes between organisms
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3
Q

What is recombinant DNA?

A

constructed when scientists combine pieces of DNA from two different sources to form a single DNA molecule

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4
Q

What is genetic engineering?

A

the direct manipulation of genes for practical purposes

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5
Q

DNA technology and medicine examples

A
  • Humulin: human insulin produced from genetically modified bacteria
  • Human Growth Hormone
  • Erythropoietin: stimulates production of red blood cells
  • vaccines
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6
Q

What are genetically modified organisms?

A

organisms that have acquired one or more genes by artificial means

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7
Q

What is a transgenic organism?

A

an organism that contains a gene from another organism, typically another species
(ex. golden rice 2- carries proteins from daffodils and corn)

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8
Q

What are bacterial plasmids?

A

small, circular DNA molecules that replicate separately from the larger bacterial chromosome

  • can carry virtually any gene
  • can act as vectors
  • are ideal for gene cloning
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9
Q

What are vectors?

A

DNA carries that move genes from one cell to another

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10
Q

What is gene cloning?

A

the production of multiple identical copies of a gene-carrying piece of DNA

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11
Q

What is recombinant DNA made from?

A
  1. bacterial plasmid

2. gene of interest

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12
Q

What are the steps to inserting a foreign gene into a plasmid? (8 steps)

A
  1. Isolate DNA bacterial plasmids that serve as vectors
  2. Isolate DNA from another organism including the gene of interest
  3. Cut both types of DNA with same enzyme (gene of interest placed in only one fragment of DNA)
  4. Mix DNA fragments and plasmids and join them together to make recombinant DNA plasmids (some containing the gene of interest)
  5. Recombinant DNA plasmids mix with bacteria which take them up (transformation)
  6. Reproduction occurs, “gene cloning,” any genes carried by recombinant plasmid are also copied (culture in media)
  7. Isolate the clone with the gene of interest
  8. The gene and protein of interest are isolated from the bacteria
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13
Q

What do restriction enzymes do?

A

cut DNA at specific nucleotide sequences (restriction sites)

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14
Q

What are restriction fragments?

A

pieces of DNA produced from splicing enzymes, contain “sticky ends” important for joining DNA to different sources

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15
Q

What is DNA ligase?

A

what connects the DNA pieces into continuous strands by forming bonds between adjacent nucleotides

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16
Q

What are the steps in creating recombinant DNA?

A
  1. restriction enzymes cuts DNA into fragments
  2. a DNA fragment is added from another source
  3. fragments stick together by base pairing
  4. DNA ligase joins the fragments into pairs
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17
Q

What do restriction enzymes do?

A
  • cut DNA into fragments
  • in normal bacterial environment –> function by cutting invading viral DNA sequences at sequences, disrupting viral DNA genes
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18
Q

What are Ti plasmids?

A

naturally occurring DNA molecule carried by the bacterium
–> Transfers genes into plants
(Most genetic engineering in plants use Ti plasmids as a vector. The recombinant plasmid is introduced into plant cells, which regenerate a new plant containing the recombinant T DNA, stably incorporated into the DNA of every cell.)

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19
Q

What are examples of genetically modified (GM) foods?

A
  • corn –> to resist insect infestation
  • 1/2 corn, 3/4 soybeans are GM
  • Strawberry plants produce bacterial proteins that act as a natural antifreeze, protecting the plants from cold weather.
  • Potatoes and rice have been modified to produce harmless proteins derived from the cholera bacterium and may one day serve as edible vaccines.
  • “Golden rice 2” (a transgenic variety of rice that carries genes from daffodils and corn and could help prevent vitamin A deficiency and resulting blindness.)
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20
Q

What are concerns about GM crops?

A
  • carry foreign genes that might harm environment (hazardous to beneficial insects)
  • harm human health (allergic reactions)
  • transgenic plans may pass genes to close relatives
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21
Q

Who are the monitoring agencies of GM crops/livestock?

A

FDA, Env. Protection Agency, National Institutes of Health, Dept. of Agriculture

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22
Q

What is Virotherapy?

A

scientifically engineered viruses to specifically target cancer cells

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23
Q

How does virotherapy work?

A
  1. invade through unique receptors on surface of cancer cells
  2. burst cells open
  3. make them more vulnerable to chemotherapy
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24
Q

What is the concern with virotherapy?

A

normal adenoviruses are common and people that already have immune systems prone to fighting adenoviruses may suffer a severe immune reaction from genetically engineered ones

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25
Q

What are examples of genetically modified animals?

A
  • animals that synthesize important medical proteins

- transgenic pig: carries gene for human hemoglobin which can be isolated and used for human blood transfusions

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26
Q

How else can animals be genetically modified?

A

through the adding or knocking out of specific genetic elements

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27
Q

What is humulin?

A

human insulin produced by genetically modified bacteria

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28
Q

What is a vaccine?

A

a harmless variant or derivative of a disease-causing microbe (ex. bacteria or virus) that is used to prevent an infectious disease
–> may use genetically engineered yeast cells to make large amounts of a protein found on a microbe’s outer surface

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29
Q

What does it mean to be transgenic?

A

adding a gene or conferring one from a foreign gene/wild type gene (over/underexpress the wild type)

30
Q

What does it mean to be knockout?

A

removing a gene of interest or inactivating it

–> homologous recombination can be used

31
Q

What is a chiasma?

A

the site of crossing over

32
Q

Production of knockout mice

A

see powerpoint

33
Q

Steps to producing adult mice with knockout genes

A
  1. DNA introduced into embryonic stem cells. The DNA contains a non-functional copy of gene of interest, an antibiotic resistance gene and a gene encoding viral enzyme
  2. ES cells are grown in culture
  3. Cells containing DNA are selected using an antibiotic
  4. cells in which the DNA has insert by recombination are selected using antiviral drug
  5. knockout cells are inserted into a host embryo
  6. purebred knockout mice are produced
34
Q

What are gene therapies?

A

replacing defective genes

35
Q

What is a population?

A

a group of organisms of the same species living/breeding together in the same geographic area

36
Q

Can an individual evolve?

A

no, only populations can evolve

37
Q

What is a gene pool?

A

all alleles of all the genes in a population at one time

38
Q

What is an allele frequency?

A

proportion or allele frequency relative to the totally number of alleles

39
Q

Why is genetic diversity important?

A
  • helps organism cope with variability
  • primary basis for adaptation to future environmental uncertainty
  • increased diversity = more ways to adapt to environmental changes that affect reproductive success
40
Q

What are mechanisms of evolutionary change?

A
  1. Mutation: heritable change in DNA sequence in a population
  2. Gene Flow: migration of genes between populations
  3. Genetic Drift: changes in gene frequencies among populations (ex. loss of population, catastrophic event)
  4. Random Mating: if individuals preferentially choose mates with certain genotypes including close relatives
  5. Natural Selection: differential survival and reproduction of individuals in response to environmental pressure that leads to change in genes
41
Q

What is interbreeding?

A

mating of parents who are genetically close in relation

42
Q

What is interbreeding depression?

A

reduced fitness in a population due to the increased appearance of deleterious homozygous recessive traits
–> more common in small populations

43
Q

What is the source of genetic variation?

A

mutation

44
Q

Genetic inbreeding ____ diversity

A

reduces

45
Q

Genetic drift _____ genetic diversity

A

reduces

46
Q

What is the founders effect?

A

when founders (immigrants) begin to reproduce and populate a new area, the new population usually has reduced genetic diversity because of an non-complex gene pool

47
Q

What is the bottleneck effect?

A

population reduces suddenly/significantly (ex. infection, extreme climate events)

48
Q

Gene Flow can _____ genetic diversity

A

increase

49
Q

What is gene flow?

A

describes movement of alleles between populations due to immigration and inter population mating, non-adaptive because changes in allele frequencies are random

50
Q

What is non-adaptive evolution?

A

a change in allele frequency that does not, by itself, lead a population to become more adapted to its environment (caused by mutation, genetic drift, and gene flow)

51
Q

What is an adaptation?

A

any trait with a functional role in the life history of an organism that is maintained/evolved by means of natural selection

52
Q

What is fitness?

A

relative ability to survive and reproduce in a particular environment (increased fitness = increased likelihood to pass on genes)

53
Q

What is evolution by natural selection?

A

variable fitness –> changes in frequency of specific alleles over time

54
Q

What is positive selection?

A

increasing of trait, increased reproductive success

55
Q

What is negative selection?

A

decreasing of trait, decreased reproductive success

56
Q

What is neutral selection?

A

no influence of trait on reproductive success

57
Q

How is fitness determined?

A

by interaction between phenotype and environment (ex. antibiotic resistant bacteria have high fitness when exposed to antibiotics, only adaptive in presence of antibiotic)

58
Q

What is the Hardy Weinburg Law?

A

gene frequencies do not change over time, provided certain critical assumptions are made

59
Q

What are the assumptions in the Hardy Weinburg Law?

A
  1. Large population size: a drastic decrease in population would likely change allelic frequency
  2. Random mating
  3. No mutation of genes: law assumes there is no change in DNA due to mutations
  4. No natural selection: differential survival of individual based on traits, organisms with desirable traits may be more likely to survive/reproduce
  5. No migration of genes: assumes no interbreeding
60
Q

What is the symbol for the dominant allele?

A

p

61
Q

What is the symbol for the recessive allele?

A

q

62
Q

What is the symbol for a homozygous dominant trait?

A

p^2

63
Q

What is the symbol for a heterozygous trait?

A

2pq

64
Q

What is the symbol for a homozygous recessive trait?

A

q^2

65
Q

What are the equations for Hardy Weinburg Law?

A

p + q = 1

p^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1

66
Q

What is relative fitness?

A

the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals

67
Q

DNA technology has led to advances in….

A
  • creation of GMO’s (bioengineering)
  • forensic science
  • identification/treatment of genetic diseases
  • genome mapping
68
Q

Why was insulin hard to get?

A

supplies of insulin purified from human blood are extremely scarce –> many people were treated with insulin from pigs and cattle, unfortunately it caused many toxic reactions

69
Q

What is Erythropoietin?

A

hormone that stimulates production of RBC’s in anemic patients

70
Q

What does the Biosafety Protocol do?

A
  • requires exporters to identify GM organisms in bulk food shipments
  • allows importing countries to decide whether the shipments pose environmental or health risks
71
Q

How are knockout mice produced?

A

DNA is synthesized that is similar to the base sequence of the target gene

Biology 1010 (13 decks)

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