Chapter 9 - The Reformation

Question 1

Give an account of the problems in the Catholic Church that led to the reformation

Answer 1

1. Corruption - the Catholic Church was run by a hierarchy
2. The tithe meant the hierarchy had control of the large amounts of money collected by the Church - this access to wealth attracted many men to join clergy because they wanted to become rich, rather than because they wanted to serve God
3. Priests often poorly trained, many couldn’t even speak Latin - meant they could explain mass/the bible to the people
4. Many also ignored the celibacy rules + had wives + children
5. This corruption led to abuses in he Church which upset many ordinary Christians who believed in Christ + his teachings
6. Nepotism - the hierarchy often appointed family members as priests, parish priests or bishops, even if they went fully qualified or trained
7. Simony - bribery; pope often accepted payment to appoint cardinals, then cardinals did the same for bishops etc.
8. Pluralism + Absenteeism - greed led many bishops + priests to want to control more than one parish/diocese (the more parishes/dioceses he controlled, the richer he became) - pluralism
   - this led to absenteeism, meaning many parishes + dioceses had no priest/bishop for long periods + the people had no one to offer them spiritual guidance
9. The Sale of Indulgences - took advantage of belief in heaven, purgatory + hell (EXPLAIN), Church said Christians. Hold reduce time they/their loved ones spent in purgatory by buying an indulgence - meant Church accepted money in return for forgiveness of sin
   - king/prince could live life of sin, but as long as he built cathedral for church he’d go to heaven, but the poor were encouraged to part with hard-earned money in mistaken belief they could buy way out of purgatory

Question 2

Describe the background of Martin Luther and how he first formed his beliefs

Answer 2

1. Born in 1483 in Saxony, Germany - father wanted him to study law, but Martin was v. religious so joined Augustinian order
2. Became teacher of theology at Uni of Wittenberg
3. Deeply troubled, saw himself as awful sinner, studied bible to find way for sinners to get to heaven
4. Developed idea called ‘Justification By Faith Alone’ - only way to get to heaven/be saved by God was to posses a genuine faith + belief in God
   (buying indulgences couldn’t make it easier to get to heaven)
5. Visited Rome in 1510 + was shocked by bad lives of many churchmen there - comment: “Go to Rome + lose your faith!”

Question 3

Give an account of Luther’s protest

Answer 3

1. In 1517, Pope Leo X issued indulgence for construction of St. Peter’s Basilica, Rome - declared anyone who donated to collection would have sins forgiven
2. John Tetzel (Dominican friar) sent to Germany to sell this indulgence for pope
3. Luther appalled, felt Church was taking advantage of fears + faith of uneducated poor
4. Further evidence of corruption revealed when emerged the Archbishop of Mainz was to get half the proceeds in return for allowing sale in his diocese
5. Luther wrote letter to archbishop outlining view, but was ignored, so wrote down 95 these against the sale of indulgences + other abuses + nailed them to the door of the church in Wittenberg castle (normal way of posting public information)
6. His ideas spread all over Germany thanks to printing press + struck a chord with many who were fed up with corruption in Church
7. Luther instructed to recant or face punishment (Leo expected absolute obedience for clergy)
8. In 1519 debated ideas with Pope’s rep, John Eck - refusal to back down won him more support
9. In 1520 Pope sent him a Papal Bull called Exsurge Domini ordering him to recant or be excommunicated; Luther burned it + was excommunicated
10. As Luther’s argument with pope went on, supporters became more + more angry - Charles V (Emperor of Germany) called a Diet (meeting) of all the German princes at a town called Worms
11. Luther called before Diet, again told to recant - refused, declared an outlaw + a heretic by the Edict (order) of Worms
12. However, many German princes supported him (useful in struggle against Catholic Emperor), among these was Frederick, Elector of Saxony - brought Luther to castle at Wartburg, protected from enemies
13. Here, Luther translate the bible into German (vernacular language) + set out his religious beliefs

Question 4

Outline the key religious beliefs of Martin Luther

Answer 4

1. Justification by Faith Alone
2. The Bible was the only source of God’s teaching, should be in the vernacular (as should religious services)
3. As study of Bible was all a Christian needed, convinced there was no need in his Church for priests/hierarchy - simply relied on ministers to preach the scriptures (“The Priesthood of all Believers”)
4. Replaced Latin Mass with Communion Service in German
5. Rejected all sacraments but those mentioned in Bible; Baptism + The Eucharist
6. Believed in consubstantiation (bread + wine change into body + blood while remaining bread + wine) rather than transubstantiation (bread + wine changed into body + blood of Christ while still appearing as bread + wine)
7. Not mentioned in Bible, so indulgences, praying to statues + wearing of vestments (special clothing) banned in Lutheranism
8. A married clergy

Question 5

What were the results of Luther’s protests?

Answer 5

1. Germany becoming divided between Protestants + Roman Catholics - eventually plunged into wars of religion in 1545
2. War ended in 1555 with Treaty of Augsburg which declared prince of each state would decide official religion of his people
3. This didn’t provide last peace though, between 1618-48, Northern Europe plunged into series of wars between Catholic + Protestant states - became known as Thirty Years War
4. Luther died in 1546 - had protested against Catholic Church + introduced lasting reforms in doctrines + customs
5. In general, German states of north Germany became Lutheran + those in south remained catholic
6. Other countries in North of Europe such as Sweden + Denmark also became Lutheran
7. Luther set out to tackle problems in Catholic Church, but this resulted in split bc Church in Rome was at this stage unwilling to reform itself

Question 6

Give a brief account of the background of the founder of Presbyterianism and how the religion began

Answer 6

1. Jean Calvin was born in Noyon, France in 1509
2. Agreed with Luther that church was corrupt - left church in 1533 to follow Luther’s teachings
3. At this time, French Lutherans (Huguenots) were being persecuted, so Calvin left France for Switzerland in order to develop religious theories
4. Settled in Geneva, set up own, strict Protestant church
5. Calvin’s church rules Geneva, became known as the City of God
6. Enforced extremely strict religious laws (see other card)
7. His version of Protestantism became known as Presbyterianism bc ministers in his church were called presbyters (from Greek)

Question 7

Outline the religious beliefs of Jean Calvin - how did he do this at the time?

Answer 7

He wrote a book called ‘The Institutes of the Christian Religion’, in which he outlined his beliefs
Agreed with Luther:
1. Married clergy
2. Bible is only source of God’s will
3. All church services should be held in the vernacular
Differed from Luther:
1. His main belief was predestination: that God decided before a person was born whether they were going to heaven (the Elect) - nothing you could do to get into heaven if not one of the Elect
2. Only one sacrament: baptism
3. That the bread + wine remained bread + wine at Communion
4. Luther accepted Catholic practice of decorating churches with stained glass windows + art, but Calvin saw this as a distraction + sinful
- all Presbyterian churches were to be as simple as possible, with little/no decoration (no crucifixes, altars or statues, main feature in each church was pulpit

Question 8

What sort of religious laws were enforced in Calvin’s Geneva? What was one of the worst punishments? Why did people endure + obey these laws?

Answer 8

1. Entertainment such as gambling, dancing, theatre + music banned
2. Swearing was a crime - punishable by law
3. Style of dress restricted - people encouraged to dress simply + most dressed in black
4. Heretics (those seen as offending God by behaviour/beliefs) often burned at stake
5. Attendance at church on Sundays made compulsory
6. One of worst punishments in Geneva was excommunication from Church - excommunicated people carefully avoided by others, could no longer make a living
7. People endured + obeyed these laws bc they believed they were part of the Elect and would be rewarded for their suffering by going to heaven

Question 9

What were the results of Calvin’s Geneva?

Answer 9

1. Had v. good record in area of education - many schools set up, the Academy of Geneva (initially used as training college for Calvinist ministers) later grew into Uni of Geneva
2. His ideas spread to his native France, where his followers became known as Huguenots; also had powerful effect in Netherlands
3. In England, followers of Calvinism known as Puritans - some of them emigrated to the New World, bringing Calvinism with them
4. John Knox, a follower of Calvinism, brought Presbyterianism back to his native Scotland
5. Presbyterianism came to Ireland at beginning of 17th century when many Scots Presbyterians came to Ulster as part of Ulster plantation
6. The religious divide in Ulster can be traced back to this event, therefore the ideas of Jean Calvin have had major impact on Irish history

Question 10

Who was John Knox, and what involvement did he have in the Reformation? How did this impact Ireland?

Answer 10

1. A Scottish man (born in 1513) who brought Presbyterianism back to Scotland
2. He converted a large majority of his countrymen to Calvinism
3. Many Scots Presbyterians came to Ireland as part of the Ulster Plantation, and the religious divide in Ulster today can be traced back to this event

Question 11

How did Henry VIII start his own Church, and why did he do it? (don’t really need all)

Answer 11

1. He was King of England from 1509-1547, and at first a devout Catholic and violent opponent of Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation - even given title of ‘Defender of the Faith’
2. Later wanted to divorce first wife, Catherine of Aragon, bc hadn’t given him a son (but did have daughter, Mary)
3. The pope refused Henry’s request for divorce (claimed it shouldn’t have happened bc she was the widow of Arthur, but Pope essentially captive by Charles V, the Holy Roman Empire (army had invaded Rome) - he was her nephew)
4. Henry set up own church, the Church of England - he was head of church, so could grant himself a divorce (this started the English reformation) (actually granted by new Archbishop Thomas Cranmer in 1533)
5. Set up what became known as the Reformation Parliament, beheaded new Lord Chancellor (Thomas More) in 1533 bc didn’t support break with Rome
6. Act of Supremacy put through Parliament in 1534 which broke control of Pope over Church of England + made Henry Head of CoE
7. Monasteries shut down in Act of Dissolution in 1536, lands sold to local lords with handsome profit to Crown
8. But during his lifetime was no changes to church services/beliefs, so Protestant Reformation didn’t start until reigns of his kids

Question 12

Give an account of the impact of the Reformation on England

Answer 12

1. Henry made head of Church of England in Act of Supremacy (1534)
2. Monasteries closed in the Act of Dissolution (1536) bc they were centres of loyalty to the pope + therefore a threat to Henry’s new position (also new land for Henry!)
3. But no changes in church services/beliefs until reign of children - Elizabeth from 2nd wife (Anne Boleyn), Edward from 3rd wife (Jane Seymour)
4. Edward raised a Protestant, ruled with help of regents when father died (9)
5. Archbishop of Canterbury (Thomas Cranmer) introduced Books of Common Prayer (services in English), god rid of most of Catholic vestments of ministers + adopted belief in Eucharist similar to Calvin (Henry: 6 changes, Edward: 42)
6. Catholicism restored by elder hall sister, Mary, when he died in 1553 (daughter of Catherine of Aragon), but didn’t reopen monasteries bc lands already sold to local lords, repossession could lead to rebellion
7. Married Philip II (Spain) in 1554 to try strengthen Catholicism, launched spate of arrests + executions against Protestants who refused to go back (most famous: Thomas Cranmer)
8. Burning at stake of 3 Protestant bishops helped convince people of faith of Protestants in beliefs, strengthened Protestant religion in England –> Bloody Mary (300 dead by death in 1558)
9. Elizabeth I brought up Protestant, but willing to form a compromise ‘Anglican Church’ to win loyalty of both
10. Declared herself ‘Governor’, not ‘Head’ in Act of Supremacy of 1559, meaning Catholics could still privately regard Pope as head
11. Protestant ideas (married clergy, vernacular services, banning of Mass) reintroduced, but Catholic beliefs considered too (decorations + vestments restored, small fines for not attending service monthly)
12. Even private masses in homes tolerated
13. Liz ruled Protestant nation which tolerated Catholics for 12 years
14. Then in 1570, Pope Pius V issued P.B. excommunicating her + declaring she had no right to rule England - made her much less willing to tolerate Catholics, saw them all as possible traitors
15. Faced big threat of Armada - Philip II was Europe’s most devout king, longed to restore Catholicism to position it had held on death of wife, Mary, even proposed to Liz on death, but refused
16. England also threatening Spain’s control of US - Pope Sixtus V promised Phil 1mil ducats of Church money to invade England
17. Armada set sail from Lisbon in 1588 w/ 127 ships + 27,000 men - disaster from beginning; poor supplies, bad weather + brilliantly commanded English fleet (Sir John Howard + FD)
18. Defeat of Armada finally ensured English Reformation was safe

Question 13

Describe the results of the English Reformation

Answer 13

1. Created tensions between Protestants + Catholics + saw beginning of religious persecution in England - rulers didn’t accept subjects could be totally loyal to them if followed teachings of Pope in Rome
2. Many who suffered religious persecution in England emigrated to N.A., Catholics founded Maryland + Quakers founded Pennsylvania
3. Closure of monasteries severely affected poor, had provided important services like caring for sick in infirmary + giving out charity - had also provided accommodation of travellers + education for young people
4. Would cause religious tensions in Ireland during Plantations (especially in Ulster)

Question 14

Summarise the main aspects of the counter-Reformation

Answer 14

1. It was the response of the Catholic Church to the rapid spread of Protestant ideas
2. Its first response was to end the corruption and abuses
3. There was a long meeting called the Council of Trent of bishops, archbishops + cardinals held in Italy between 1545-63 (met on 3 occasions
4. New Catholic orders of priests + nuns emerged who were dedicated to defending Catholicism against the spread of Protestantism (e.g. the Jesuits + the Ursulines)
5. The Courts of Inquisition were set up to deal with heretics (people who offend God) - the two main branches were the Roman + Spanish Inquisitions

Question 15

What did the Council of Trent outline the Catholic beliefs to be? How were the abuses eliminated?

Answer 15

They outlined all the Catholic beliefs:

• both faith + good works were necessary for salvation
• there are 7 sacraments
• priests were special people, not permitted to marry
• Pope was one + only head of the Church

Abuses eliminated through discipline

1. Council banned many of old abuses e.g. pluralism, simony + nepotism
2. Bishops obliged to live in dioceses, ending absenteeism
3. All priests were to be fully + properly trained in seminaries
4. Protestant books + books that disagreed with teachings of Church banned
5. Indulgences could only be bought through faith + prayer, not money

Question 16

Who were the Jesuits? How were they founded, and what work did they do?

Answer 16

1. Founded by Ignatius Loyola (former Spanish soldier) in 1534
2. Wrote a book called The Spiritual Exercises as guide to train followers of Christ
3. Influenced by military experience, Jesuits organised like army (leader called General, priests referred to as Soldiers of Christ
4. Recognised as new religious order by Pope Paul III in 1540, totally loyal to him
5. Methods were teaching + example rather than war - mainly involved in education + missionary work
6. Founded schools + colleges to teach sons of nobles + merchants, believed these wealthy students would become powerful + influence religion of their countries
7. Missionaries had great influence in keeping Poland, Austria, the Czech Republic, Slovakia + southern Germany Catholic
8. Also sought to convert non-Christians in places like South America + Asia (Francis Xavier was one of most famous missionaries, travelled to India + Japan

Question 17

What were the Courts of Inquisition? Describe the two main ones, and what they did

Answer 17

1. Church Courts set up to deal with people who opposed its teaching (heretics)
2. Roman + Spanish were main ones
3. Roman Inquisition was under control of Pope, tried suspected heretics/Church critics + had power to imprison/execute offenders - responsible for condemnation of Galileo
4. Spanish Inquisition initially set up before 1500 to rid Spain of Jews + Muslims, but turned attention to Protestants during Reformation
5. 10,000s arrested (often on flimsiest of reasons) - people encouraged to spy on neighbours, those accused had to prove innocence
6. Punishments included torture with whips/pulleys + semi-strangulation by the toca, a type of water torture
7. Many of those accused of heresy subjected to public humiliation - forced to wear yellow garment called San Benito to embarrass them
8. People who refused to give up non-Catholic beliefs executed by being burned at the stake
9. As a result, Protestantism crushed in Spain + Italy - remained Catholic

Question 18

Describe the consequences of the Reformation (for all but England)

Answer 18

1. Germany divided between Protestants + Catholics, plunged into wars of religion in 1545
2. Ended in 1555 with Treaty of Augsburg (declared that prince of each state could decide religion of people
3. This didn’t provide lasting peace, between 1618-48 Northern Europe plunged into series of wars between Catholic + Protestant states –> 30 Years War
4. Calvin’s Geneva had good education record, many schools set up, Uni of Geneva founded
5. Big impact on Ireland bc religious divide in Ulster can be traced back to Scots Presbyterians
6. Counter-Reformation reduced Protestantism from 40%-20%
7. But didn’t bring reconciliation, remained bitterly opposed
8. Led to civil wars in Germany, France + Netherlands (supremacy struggles)
9. Led to religious persecution - rulers believed that only those of same religion as them could be loyal subjects
10. Europe divided by religion, most of southern remained Catholic while most of Northern became Protestant (Ireland exception mainly due to Jesuits)
11. It did strengthen + improve Catholic Church though, thus ensuring survival as major religion
    Protestant: Northern Germany, Sweden, Denmark (after Luther)
    Calvinism: spread to France (Huguenots), Netherlands
    Catholic: Southern Germany (after Luther), Spain, Italy (after Inquisitions)