1st Year - People in History

Question 1

Archaeologist on a Dig

Answer 1

1. Area located using field walking, aerial photos, sometimes by accident - salvage archaeology
2. Area sealed off from public (no damage), site prepared, topsoil removed + grid
3. Tools: trowel, sieve, brush, photographic scale, polythene bag
4. Dating the Objects: carbon-14 dating + stratigraphy, dendrochronology

Question 2

A Neolithic Farmer

Answer 2

1. More settled, Céide fields suggests separate land
2. More skilled, better tools (polished stone)
3. Cut down trees with stone axes, removed them + prepared land for crops/grazing by using mattocks/wooden ploughs to turn the soil
4. Ground wheat in barley in large stone with quern stone
5. Clothes made from animal skin + sheep’s wool, spinning + weaving developed, dyes made from plants
6. Settled, stronger house on higher ground bc lighter/easier to plough soil
7. Houses wood/stone, rectangular + much larger than before
8. Wattle + daub (thick posts in ground weaved with branches), roof was straw/rushes
9. Cooking done around fireplace in middle of floor, hole in roof acted as chimney, food stored in clay pots

Question 3

A Celtic Druid

Answer 3

1. Very important in Celtic society, pagan priests (explained work + actions of gods)
2. Came from noble families, trained for up to 20 years, main task was to learn sacred teachings of those before them by heart
3. Only Druids could offer sacrifices to gods (festivals, thanks for good harvest) - usually animals, sometimes humans, sometimes threw weapons/bronze + gold objects into lakes + wells to please gods
4. Daghda (afterlife) most important, married to Boann, others: Lug (warriors) Manannán Mac Lír (sea god)
5. In charge of conducting ceremonies at festivals (Samhain: Nov 1, new year, magical so could meet spirits, animals brought in + often killed; Imbolc: Feb 1, end of winter + beginning of new growth; Bealtaine: May, second most important, bonfires + sacrifices in hope of good harvest, cattle between fires before sent out for protection against disease; Lughnasa: Aug 1, last major Celtic festival just as harvest about to be lifted (hoped harvest would be plentiful + sufficient food for winter months)
6. Druids believed nature was magical: forest were sacred places + oaks were special; herbs gathered by Druid from such places + prepared into potions which were given to cure sick + animals
7. Arrival of Christianity led the gradual decline of Druids, some kings may have welcomed it bc thought Druids held too much power

Question 4

A Monk in Early Christian Ireland

Answer 4

1. Monk in charge = abbot
2. Clothes made from course undyed wool, simple white tunic under cape + hood, leather sandals on feet
3. Every monk lives in own special room called beehive hut, spends most of day there praying + studying bible + gospels
4. Manuscripts made in scriptorium, v. expensive to make. Written using quills + ink from herbs/plants on think sheepskin called parchment/calfskin called vellum
5. Many jobs to be done in monastery - some monks are trained stone masons (spend most of time making beautiful stone (high) crosses), others are expert metal workers (make beautiful chalices + bells for Church)
6. Sometimes work in fields around monastery, grow crops + keep animals (only eat what need)
7. Bell at top of round tower rings out at dinner + prayer time - sometimes also rung when monastery is about to be attacked
8. Run to round tower + take manuscripts + gold + silver objects, door to round tower is 3m above ground, reached by ladder which is removed when every monk is inside
9. Strict rules for monastery, expected to follow simple instructions: pray daily, fast daily, study daily + work daily

Question 5

A Child in Ancient Rome

Answer 5

1. Mothers usually raised kids up to 7, from the boys accompanied father to learn to be farmers/craftsmen/soldiers
2. Kids from wealthy families us,all went to school where they were taught to read + write (on wax tablets, easy to wipe out mistakes)
3. School very strict, often beaten if failed to learn lessons
4. Few girls continued with formal education after 12, but rich boys went to grammar school until 16 (learned Greek, history, geography, maths, oratory (especially if wanted to be lawyer/politician) + studied works of great authors like Plato + Aristotle
5. After school kids free to go to baths/play games (marbles/rolling hoops/football with blown up pigs bladder)
6. Boys married from 14, girls married from 12 - arranged, usually by fathers to gain political power/set up business deal
7. Night before wedding: young girl would return bulla (birth charm of gold/leather) to father + give away toys to other family members - statement childhood was over + she was to become members of husbands family

Question 6

A Roman Soldier

Answer 6

1. Any male citizen from 17-46 could be called upon to serve in army, usually served for 20-25 years
2. Most went into battle on foot, very few cavalry
3. Kept fit by going on 30km road march 3x monthly
4. Wore steel helmet, wool tunic, leather protective vest with strips of metal on font (none on back bc never expected to turn away from enemy) + hob-nailed sandals
5. Weapons included two javelins, sword, dagger + wooden shield
6. Each carried own food + water, enough to last two weeks (ate plenty, but meals usually consisted of beans, cheese, bread + gruel made from barley; drank water/cheap wine
7. Lived in large barracks under strict discipline - broke the rules = flogged in front of fellow soldiers
8. If legion failed to perform well, food rations would be reduced
9. Any attempt at mutiny (overthrowing command) severely punished - every 10th soldier killed (decimatio)
10. When soldier finished time of service, government usually gave him plot of land to farm/some money which could be used to set up a business

Question 7

The Lord of the Castle

Answer 7

1. Lord + lady of castle lived very privileged life, surrounded by host of servants who carried out commands
2. Lord was most important person in surrounding area - ensured rents were paid + knights remained loyal/ready to defend lands
3. Estate steward carried out most of these tasks on behalf of lord, issued orders to bailiffs who were responsible for collecting rents + fines
4. Lord also acted as judge, settling disputes + handing out punishments/fines to those who broke the law/disobeyed his rules
5. Hosted large banquets in great hall to entertain visiting nobles/king
6. Ate well - most meals had meat + variety of veg, great choice of food at banquets (especially at top table) e.g. swan, peacock
7. Bad smell of mets disguised by adding spices, occasionally even dyed to make appearance more appetising
8. Other guests sat at long tables, more important towards top table
9. Only those at top table had food on platters, rest had food on trenchers (slabs of stale bread)
10. Hunting was one of most popular pastimes of lord + way of providing food for castle
11. Hunted deer, wild boar + foxes on horseback
12. Hunting sometimes carried out on foot/by using birds of prey

Question 8

The Lady of the Castle

Answer 8

1. Rarely married out of love, usually because of pact between father + neighbouring lord (sometimes marriages arranged between children) - often by 14
2. In charge of domestic duties + running castle when lord was away
3. Ensured there was enough food in storeroom to last number of months, + oversaw salting of food (necessary for preservation)
4. Also largely responsible for upbringing of children (not always her own, fosterage common from 7)
5. Ladies in waiting helped with duties (usually relatives/other noble women)
6. Rarely hunted on horseback, but often took part in hawking - birds of prey trained to fly from wrist, kill + bring back small animals
7. In spare time would play instruments/games like chess/do embroidery
8. Noble women wore long, expensive silk dresses + strange looking headdresses which completely covered hair

Question 9

A Medieval Knight

Answer 9

1. Could take up to 15 years to become fully trained knight - only noble boys allowed privilege
2. Trainees started at 6-7, sent away by parents to lord’s castle to become page
3. Expected to learn good manners, how to read + write, basic fighting skills with wooden swords + shields + act as servant to lady + lord
4. Became squire at 14 - accompanied fully trained knight , learned to fight with real weapons + responsible for looking after knight’s horse + armour
5. If squire proved he was skilful + brave warrior after 7 years as squire, king/local lord knighted him during ceremony called accolade
6. Spent night before in church praying he’d never fail in duty to serve lord/king
7. On morning dressed in white tunic (purity), red robe (willingness to shed blood) + black jacket (acceptance he may die in battle)
8. Knelt before lord for dubbing (tapped head + shoulders), then presented with sword
9. Some could be knighted right on battlefield for bravery
10. Wore heavy armour for protection (chain mail at first, then plate as weapons got deadlier), helmet on head + gauntlets on hands
11. Kept fit + practiced skills between wars by participating in tournaments
12. Sometimes took part in mêlées (mock battles, free for alla)
13. Jousting was most popular contest: two knights on horseback charged at each other on either side of fence called tilt, aim was so unseat rival by knocking them off horse with lance
14. Defeated usually had to give winner horse + all armour
15. Knights expected to show good manners (chivalry) –> loyal, brave, generous + courteous to women

Question 10

A Serf in a Medieval Manor

Answer 10

1. Living on Manor farm, have three strips of land in different fields (don’t own!)
2. In return for living on lord’s land give him some of crops I grow + agree to work on farm 3 days a week
3. Cut cartload of wood for him annually, + lend him few oxen for 7 days each year to plough fields
4. Must also pay lord for use of water mill + seek permission if want to leave village/get married
5. Every year one tenth of crops given to parish priest for upkeep of church –> tithe
6. In spring plough land + sow seeds of oats, peas + beans for coming harvest - hard keeping fields weed free
7. In good weather cut grass + make hay to see livestock through winter
8. In autumn any animals that can’t be fed killed + meat salted + stored
9. Wife grows veg in small patch beside hut, makes butter + cheese from cow’s milk
10. Also makes clothes for all family by spinning wool into rough thread
11. Men wear cloth tunic, leather boots + felt hat; women wear woollen dresses + linen cloth called wimple (wrapped around head + neck)
12. Home is simple, thatched, wattle + daub one-roomed cottage - no glass in windows, hole in roof acts as chimney
13. Share home with animals (piece of sacking hung from roof to divide)
14. Floors bare, furniture is table + stools
15. Meals cooked on open fire in middle of floor, mainly eat bread, porridge + pottage (meat only on special occasions), drink beer
16. 12 day holiday at Christmas, cottages decorated with holly + mistletoe - celebrations last until January
17. Feast in Manor House on Christmas Day
18. Another festival on May 1 - everyone wears green , boy + girl dressed as king + queen, everyone dances around maypole (tree which has been cut down + placed in centre of village)
19. Anyone who breaks law tried at Manor court - animal taken away + put in pound if fail to pay fine (also used for strays)
20. Life is tough, but time for pastimes on Sundays + holidays: wrestling + cockfighting popular
21. Fair held once a year on village green where merchants come to buy + sell goods

Question 11

A Craftsman in a Medieval Town

Answer 11

1. Took many years to learn how to be Craftsman
2. Young boys who wished to learn trade sent as apprentice to master craftsman’s shop - lived in attic of house, ate with family
3. Two good meals a day; dinner at midday + supper at 5/7pm - only had bread + weak beer for breakfast, so most v. hungry by dinner
4. Wooden platters instead of plates, usually ate with fingers
5. Roast joint for dinner, master cut piece then passed along table to each of workers
6. Apples, cheese + spiced caked for supper; drank ale/mead
7. After around 7 years as apprentice, boy could become journeyman (free to do day’s paid work for anyone)
8. In order to become master journeyman had to make masterpiece (example of his work) to prove skill had reached high enough level
9. If other master craftsmen in town considered work to be of excellent standard, journeyman was free to open own shop provided he had enough money to do so
10. Craftsmen formed groups called guild to maintain high standards of goods
11. Every trade had guild which set down rules for trade, e.g. no one allowed to work before sunrise, all workshops had to close after dinner on a Sunday/remain closed on Sundays + feast days
12. Prices fixed to stop underselling, guilds also settled disputes between craftsmen + their apprentices/journeymen
13. Craftsmen paid yearly fee to guild, this used to pay for care of sick colleagues/towards upkeep of families of deceased members
14. Each guild had own patron saint - on feast day, craftsmen would shut shops + march through town - party held in guildhall in centre of town

Question 12

A Medieval Monk

Answer 12

1. Before man became monk, had to spend year in monastery as novice learning rules + discipline of monastic way of life
2. St. Benedict had written set of rules for monks to follow:
   - had to spend much of day praying to God
   - must serve God by ordinary work, e.g. working in the fields, caring for the sick + poor, cooking, washing + cleaning
   - must also serve God by self-discipline; must give up everything they own, obey the abbot + follow life of poverty + chastity
3. After year novice became monk by taking vow to obey rules of monastery
4. Had crown of head shaven in tonsure, wore woollen tunic called habit + sandals
5. Typical day: matins at 4am, mass at 6am, light breakfast at 7am, work at 8am, prayers at 10am, work at 11am, dinner at 2pm, work at 3pm, vespers at 5pm, supper at 6pm, bed at 7pm
6. Monastery had many important buildings, including a church, chapter house (where daily meetings held), refectory (dining room, talking forbidden during meal times), cloister in centre of monastery (walled enclosed area where monks could walk + pray in silence), dormitory (long narrow room where monks slept, only abbot had own quarters), infirmity, scriptorium
7. Infirmity for the sick, herbs grown in garden + used to treat ill - monk called infirmarian in charge of treating sick
8. Kept careful record of which herbs worked, became expert at making medicine for different illnesses
9. Almoner looked after visitors to monastery + was in charge of distributing food to poor
10. Part of monks work was reading + copying books - manus riots copied in special room called scriptorium
11. Spent hours here copying important manuscripts by hand + decorating with beautiful artwork (specially trained monk called illuminator often carried out this artwork)
12. Monastery was self-sufficient - cereals + veg grown in fields, bees kept for honey, animals raised for meat + milk
13. Monks made own benches + chairs, baked own bread + brewed own beer + wine

Question 13

An Italian Renaissance Artist

Answer 13

Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)

1. Seen as perfect example of ‘Renaissance man’ - all rounder, showed great interest in every aspect of life (artist, inventor, architect, musician, botanist, mathematician, sportsman)
2. Born near Florence in 1452, attended school from 5-12 but seems to have found unchallenging + spent most drawing sketches
3. Quality convinced father he should consider becoming full-time artist - showed to Andrea del Verocchio (well known artist in Florence) - agreed to take 14-year-old Leo as one of apprentices
4. Verocchio was also gifted sculptor + goldsmith, had great influence on young Leo - was he who insisted also study anatomy so he could paint portraits + sculpt in more realistic manner
5. Leo helped Verocchio paint ‘The Baptism of Christ’ - angel in front of picture + landscape in background
6. Difference between style + quality soon recognised, leading for offers to Leo to paint on own - accepted as member of painter’s guild in Florence in June 1472, apprenticeship was over + he was free to work for whoever he chose
7. From 1482-99 moved to Milan to work for new patron: Duke Ludovico Sforza - most productive years of artistic career
8. Duke gave Leo free reign to work on any project he chose - so many ideas he often drew sketches + plans for great works of art only to leave unfinished as moved onto next project
9. Only 17 of his paintings survive, among great works of art from this period are ‘The Virgin on the Rocks’ (1494) + ‘The Last Supper’ (1498) - painted on wall in dining room of monastery in Milan
10. Was brilliant inventor as well as gifted artist , during time in Milan drew sketches of many machines - fascinated by ability of birds to fly
11. Produced number of sketches, including helipcoptor, hand glider + parachute - also acted as military engineer for Duke Sforza, so many of drawings include plans for things like machine guns, an armoured tank + cannon that fired mortar bombs
12. Kept notebooks secret throughout life - used mirror writing, possibly to prevent ideas from being copied by others/bc people were suspicious of scientific explanations, especially Church, + this could place him in danger
13. Continued interest in anatomy during time in Milan, dissected up to 30 bodies (men, women, different ages) - drew images of lung, heart, brain + various muscles, discovered heart included number of valves but was unaware it acted as pump for circulation of blood throughout body
14. In 1499 moved back to Florence where painted most famous painting - Mona Lisa (believed to e painting of wife of wealthy silk merchant, Francesco del Giocndo, commissioned to celebrate birth of second child)
15. Famous because of use of sfumato + women’s strange smile (also seems to be looking at you at all angles)
16. From 1513-16 Leo moved to Rome where hod to work for pope - but discovered two of rivals, Michelangelo + Raphael, were already working in Vatican so no great demand for services
17. In 1516, accepted invitation from King Francis I of France to come + lived in royal palace at Chateau, took 3 paintings including Mona Lisa - lived there until death in 1519
18. Throughout life, raised many questions for which he sought answers - e.g. he discovered age of tree can be measured by counting rings
19. Left behind 120 notebooks with over 7000 pages, but most of plans weren’t/couldn’t be invented during lifetime
20. But many subsequent inventions + teachings based to certain extent on some of designs + theories - therefore considered ‘man before his time’

Question 14

A Renaissance Artist from Outside of Italy

Answer 14

Rembrandt van Rijn (1606-69)

1. Greatest of Dutch painters - born in uni town of Leiden where lived with family until 25
2. Father was miller, had ambitions son would follow professional career, but left uni at Leiden to take up career as painter
3. Influenced by work of Caravaggio (1573-1610), an Italian painter
4. Rembrandt’s works are striking bc of use of rich colours + way he includes light + shade in paintings
5. Moved to Amsterdam in 1631 to work as portrait painter, lived in Jewish quarter where most of patrons resided
6. Here became leading portrait painter in Holland, made lot of money from commissions from wealthy merchants + paintings of religious subjects
7. Wife acted as model for many of paintings, after death concentrated on sketching own portrait - estimated he painted up to 60 self-portraits (give us good understanding of his changing fortunes throughout life)
8. Towards end of life show tired, sorrowful man, reflecting major setbacks he suffered (3 of kids died soon after birth, wife died in 1642 shortly after birth of only son to survive into adulthood)
9. Most famous works include St. Paul in Prison (1627), The Anatomy Lesson (1632) + The Night Watch (1642) - Night Watch is probably best known work
10. Shows group of city guardsmen preparing to go to work, little girl in centre probably acted as mascot for guardsmen
11. Rather than painting them in line, Rembrandt decided to add more action by showing them readying themselves as they prepare to go on duty - caused row among guardsmen, especially those who were less visible at back (payment delayed as result)
12. Further controversy surrounded painting in 1715 when part of canvas had to be cut off so it could fit on wall in Amsterdam’s town hall - 3 people disappeared from left hand side as result
13. Famous for contrasting use of light + darkness - if you look closely, you’ll notice hand of one of captains in foreground is reflected on lieutenant’s jacket

Question 15

A Renaissance Writer

Answer 15

William Shakespeare (1564-1616)

1. Before Renaissance most European writers wrote in Latin (language of church + educated), but during Renaissance writers began to increasingly use vernacular language
2. Shakespeare was one of leading vernacular writers of Renaissance + England’s best known writer
3. Born in Stratford-on-Avon, married Anne Hathaway (daughter of local, wealthy landowner) at 18 + moved to London soon after to become actor
4. Successful actors at time a,so encouraged to write own plays, at first he rewrote old plays (adding extra scenes/changing lines to bring them up to date), but gradually began to write own plays from scratch - by 1595 was most famous playwright in England
5. Plays appealed to all classes - included heroes, villains, likeable rogues + historic figures - wrote 37 in all
6. Comedies (A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Much Ado About Nothing), tragedies (King Lear, Romeo + Juliet, Macbeth), also wrote number based on English history (Henry V, Richard III)
7. Opened own theatre called the Globe: round wooden building with open air stage in middle, could hold up to 2,000
8. Most bought tickets for standing area in front of stage; seats in covered gallery cost a little more; royalty + nobles could hire out more comfortable private box that overlooked stage
9. Standard of acting had to be v. good bc v. little scenery on stage
10. Visit to theatre could be rowdy affair, common for members of audience to heckle actors, if play considered boring rotten apples often thrown at actors
11. On occasion, scuffles broke out between members of audience while play in progress
12. Also famous for writing sonnets (short love poems)
13. Plays + poems made him rich, retired to Stratford in 1610 following 20 successful years in London - died in home town in 1616, buried in local church
14. Plays have stood test of time, remain popular today