chapter 9: motivation and emotion

Question 1

define motivation

Answer 1

drives that propel us in a specific direction

especially wants and needs

Question 2

what is motivation used for?

Answer 2

Achieving goals

Question 3

types of goals:

Answer 3

PHYSICS
physiological: food, water, exercise, sleep
hedonic goals: pleasure (think “H” for happy)
gain goals: personal resources (think “Y” for yourself)
social goals: belonging, attachment, status
cognitive goals: need to understand; motivated reasoning

Question 4

what is the drive reduction theory?

Answer 4

Certain drives motivate us to act in ways that minimize aversive states

Question 5

what are drives?

Answer 5

NAIL

N - Needs
A - Altered
I - Internal
L - Lack of equilibrium

Internal states caused by an Altered Lack of equilibrium in an organism’s physiological Needs

Question 6

what does drive reduction maintain?

Answer 6

homeostasis

Question 7

what does arousal reflect?

Answer 7

our level of alertness or stimulation

Question 8

what is Yerkes-Dodson Law?

Answer 8

suggests there is an optimal level of arousal or stress for peak performance in any given task. According to this law, performance improves as arousal or stress increases, but only up to a certain point. Beyond this point, further increases in arousal or stress can lead to a decline in performance.

Question 9

Moderate arousal leads to …

Answer 9

optimal performance

Question 10

what is stimulus hunger?

Answer 10

individual experiences a craving or desire for low-intensity stimulation when their arousal levels are low. This may occur when a person is bored, tired, or under-stimulated and seeks out activities or experiences that provide just enough stimulation to maintain an optimal level of arousal.

Question 11

what does “drives can clash” refer to?

Answer 11

Our drives clash when they compete for attention, resources, or energy, leading to situations where we must prioritize or decide between conflicting desires or needs.

When two or more needs or desires demand attention simultaneously, such as hunger and sleep, we may have trouble deciding which need to satisfy first.

Question 12

what are approach and avoidance drives?

Answer 12

two fundamental types of motivation that influence our behaviors, and goal setting. The different ways people strive for positive outcomes and avoid negative outcomes

Approach goals involve actively seeking out positive experiences or outcomes. People pursuing approach goals are motivated by the desire to attain something desirable or beneficial.

avoidance goals involve efforts to prevent negative outcomes, such as avoiding failure, punishment, or danger. People pursuing avoidance goals are motivated by the desire to prevent or alleviate something undesirable or harmful.

Question 13

Approach drives:

Answer 13

predisposition towards stimulus

these are motivations that propel us toward positive experiences, rewards, or desired outcomes. Approach drives encourage us to engage in activities that result in pleasurable or beneficial outcomes, such as seeking social connections, pursuing career advancement, or striving for personal growth. Approach motivation is often driven by the anticipation of satisfaction, success, or pleasure.

Question 14

Avoidance drives:

Answer 14

predisposition away from stimulus

These are motivations that push us away from negative experiences, threats, or undesired outcomes. Avoidance drives prompt us to avoid situations that may result in harm, discomfort, or loss, such as evading dangerous situations, escaping conflict, or preventing failures. Avoidance motivation is often driven by the fear of negative consequences or the desire to prevent discomfort.

Question 15

how can approach and avoidance drives conflict with each other?

Answer 15

when pursuing a goal or deciding involves both positive and negative outcomes. This conflict can create dilemmas and make decision-making more challenging.

Question 16

The study by Zimbardo and Montgomery (1957)

Answer 16

a good example of motivated behavior that does not align with the drive reduction theory. The experiment focused on curiosity and exploration, which are intrinsically motivated behaviors not driven by the need to reduce internal tension or satisfy a biological need.

In the study, rats were placed in a maze with no food rewards, and their behavior was observed. The rats continued to explore the maze despite the absence of a biological drive or need to be satisfied, such as hunger.

The findings suggest that curiosity and exploration, as well as other intrinsically motivated behaviors, may not be well-explained by the drive reduction theory. Instead, these behaviors may be driven by factors such as personal interest, cognitive stimulation, or intrinsic satisfaction derived from engaging in the activity itself.

Question 17

what are incentive theories?

Answer 17

We are motivated to pursue goals by positive outcomes

Question 18

what is extrinsic motivation?

Answer 18

motivated by external goals

Question 19

what is intrinsic motivation

Answer 19

people are motivated by internal goals

Question 20

Extrinsic rewards can ___ intrinsic motivation

Answer 20

undermine

Question 21

Reality is complex:

Answer 21

we may not classify activities specifically as either intrinsic or extrinsic. In real-life situations, our motivations for engaging in activities are often a blend of both intrinsic and extrinsic factors.

Question 22

who developed the hierarchy of needs?

Answer 22

Abraham Maslow

Question 23

explain The hierarchy of Needs

Answer 23

a theory that describes the different levels of human needs and motivations in a pyramid-like structure. In simple terms, it suggests that people must satisfy their basic needs at the lower levels of the hierarchy before they can focus on higher-level needs.

moves from drives to incentives

Question 24

Hierarchy of needs positive:

Answer 24

Recognizes the relative importance of needs
Good categorization system

Question 25

Hierarchy of need negative:

Answer 25

The hierarchy breaks down; cannot be interpreted literally

Question 26

how does Hunger motivate us to acquire food?

Answer 26

When our body needs energy and nutrients, it triggers a complex set of physiological and psychological processes that make us feel hungry. This sensation of hunger serves as a signal that it’s time to seek and consume food to maintain our body’s proper functioning and overall health.

Question 27

Cannon & Washburn’s (1912)

Answer 27

Walter Cannon, a physiologist, and A. L. Washburn, a psychologist, conducted a study to investigate the physiological basis of hunger and the sensation of an empty stomach.

In their experiment, Washburn swallowed a balloon attached to a tube, which was then inflated inside his stomach. The balloon’s purpose was to measure stomach contractions. Cannon and Washburn observed that the sensation of hunger coincided with stomach contractions. When the contractions occurred, Washburn would press a button to record the intensity of his hunger.

Their findings led to the development of the concept of homeostasis, which suggests that the body maintains a stable internal environment by regulating various physiological processes. In the context of hunger, this means that when the stomach is empty and contracting, it sends signals to the brain, which then triggers the sensation of hunger, motivating the individual to seek food and maintain the body’s energy balance.

Question 28

Hypothalamus (hunger and eating)

Answer 28

plays a critical role in regulating hunger and satiety.

receives and processes information from various hormones and neural signals,

then coordinates the body’s response by stimulating or inhibiting hunger.

Question 29

Glucostatic Theory:

Answer 29

When our blood glucose levels drop, hunger creates a drive to eat to restore the proper level of glucose

Question 30

Blood-glucose levels are communicated to the

Answer 30

hypothalamus

Question 31

what is also monitored by the brain and body?

Answer 31

Fat, hormones and other products of metabolism

Question 32

why does culture have a significant impact on hunger and eating?

Answer 32

Doesn’t depend entirely on the physiological on/off switch.

Time/occasions: Culture can influence when and how often we eat, as well as our perception of hunger. In some cultures, people eat multiple small meals throughout the day, while in others, they may have a few larger meals at specific times. Our culture also tells us that certain occasions are a cue to eat.

Presence of others: Social eating situations can influence the amount, type, and speed of food consumption. We may eat less in the presence of certain people. The influence of what others chose to eat can influence us as well.

Food preferences: Culture plays a role in determining the types of foods we prefer and considers palatable. Foods that are common in one culture may be unfamiliar or even unappetizing in another. These preferences can influence our motivation to eat and the types of foods we seek when hungry.

Question 33

what is priming in the context of food and hunger?

Answer 33

exposed to information that “activates” hunger and eating-related information

For example, priming can be used to promote healthier eating habits by exposing individuals to images and information about nutritious foods. On the other hand, priming can also contribute to overeating and unhealthy food choices when individuals are repeatedly exposed to cues associated with high-calorie or less nutritious foods.

Question 34

___ can increase eating

Answer 34

stress

Question 34

___ can increase eating

Answer 34

stress

Question 35

Sensory Experiences: Sensory Specific Satiety

Answer 35

refers to the decrease in appetite or desire for a specific food after consuming a substantial amount of it, while the appetite for other foods with different tastes or sensory characteristics remains unchanged or even increases.

Question 36

Emotion

Answer 36

MEME: Motivated Evaluation Mental Experience

A motivated mental state or feeling associated with our evaluation of our experiences

Result from important events

Question 37

Emotional Experiences Include:

Answer 37

PSCB
“Please Stay Calm, Buddy”

Physiological arousal
Subjective feelings
Cognitions
Behavioral Responses

Question 38

Physiological arousal:

Answer 38

This refers to the physical changes that occur in the body in response to emotional stimuli. For example, when someone experiences fear, their heart rate may increase, their breathing may become more rapid, and their muscles may tense up. These physiological changes are often automatic and can prepare the body for action in response to a perceived threat.

Question 39

Subjective feelings

Answer 39

This component of emotional experience refers to the conscious experience of feeling a certain way. For example, someone who experiences fear may subjectively feel anxious, scared, or panicked. These subjective feelings are personal and may differ between individuals, even in response to the same emotional stimuli.

Question 40

Cognitions:

Answer 40

This component refers to the thoughts and interpretations that occur in response to emotional stimuli. For example, someone who experiences fear may think about the potential dangers or threats associated with the situation, or they may focus on past experiences that have contributed to their fear. These cognitive processes can influence the subjective feelings and behavioral responses that occur in response to emotional stimuli.

Question 41

Behavioral Responses:

Answer 41

This component refers to the actions or behaviors that occur in response to emotional stimuli. For example, someone who experiences fear may attempt to avoid or escape from the perceived threat, or they may freeze in place. These behavioral responses are often adaptive and can help individuals respond to emotional stimuli in ways that promote survival and well-being.

Question 42

Emotion is not the opposite of logic:

Answer 42

Emotions are not necessarily the opposite of logic, as they can serve important cognitive functions that complement and enhance our rational thought processes

Question 43

Discrete Emotions Theory

Answer 43

Humans experience a small number of distinct emotions that are rooted in our biology

This theory proposes that emotions are not simply a broad spectrum of positive or negative feelings, but rather are specific and distinguishable from one another.

Question 44

Babies appear to be emotionally ____

Answer 44

prewired

They are born with a set of innate emotional responses and the capacity to experience a range of emotions, even before they have learned much about the world around them.

Question 45

The evolutionary basis or emotions

Answer 45

refers to the idea that emotions have evolved over time as a result of natural selection and serve important adaptive functions that are essential for human survival and reproductive success.

Question 46

Culture and emotion:

Answer 46

Researchers found universal emotions across an array of cultures.

Question 47

Paul Ekman

Answer 47

American psychologist who is widely recognized for his work on facial expressions and emotions. In the 1960s, Ekman conducted a ground-breaking study in New Guinea, where he investigated the universality of human emotions and facial expressions among the Fore people, an isolated and preliterate group.

The results of Ekman’s study supported the hypothesis that there is a set of universal facial expressions tied to specific emotions, regardless of culture or geographic location.

Question 48

what did Paul Ekman’s findings demonstrate?

Answer 48

His findings demonstrated that the Fore people could accurately identify facial expressions of emotions such as happiness, sadness, anger, fear, surprise, and disgust, suggesting that these expressions are innate and not learned through cultural exposure.

Question 49

what did paul ekman conclude?

Answer 49

there are perhaps 7 primary emotions

Question 50

what does not provide a complete picture of our emotional experiences

Answer 50

primary emotions

Question 51

what may not be universal?

Answer 51

facial expressions

Question 52

what does not necessarily elicit identical emotions in different individuals or across cultures?

Answer 52

Stimuli or events

Question 53

Display rules:

Answer 53

cross-cultural “guidelines” for how and when to express emotions

Question 54

James-Lange Theory of Emotion

Answer 54

Emotions result from our interpretations of our bodily reactions to stimuli
In simple terms, this theory states that we first experience a physiological reaction to a stimulus, and then we interpret that reaction as a specific emotion.

Question 55

Somatic Marker Theory

Answer 55

physiological responses act as markers, which are interpreted by non-conscious processes

somatic markers (emotional signals) help us evaluate the potential outcomes of various options and make choices that are advantageous to our survival and well-being.

Question 56

Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion

Answer 56

an alternative perspective on how emotions and physiological responses are related. The Cannon-Bard Theory argues that emotions and physiological responses occur simultaneously and independently, rather than one causing the other.

Question 57

Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

Answer 57

Emotions are produced by an undifferentiated state of arousal along with the attribution of that arousal.

Question 58

Two Psychological Events for Emotion:

Answer 58

Undifferentiated state of arousal

Rapid (often non-conscious) labeling of experience

Question 59

Conflicting evidence

Answer 59

Researchers successfully manipulate emotions using arousal

However, emotion can happen in the absence of arousal