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Psych 102 > Chapter 4 - Sensation and Perception > Flashcards

Chapter 4 - Sensation and Perception Flashcards

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1
Q

What is a sensation?

A

the reception of stimulation from the environment

Detection of physical energy by sense organs, which then send information to the brain

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2
Q

what is perception?

A

the interpretation of sensory information; often an automatic process

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3
Q

what are some examples of automatic processes from perception?

A
  • pattern recognition; categorization
  • link sensory information to existing knowledge
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4
Q

2 examples of sensation

A

auditory

visual

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5
Q

what are examples of automatic perception?

A

to recognize faces

to recognize whether you are sitting or walking

happens effortlessly

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6
Q

what is top-down knowledge?

A

pre-existing beliefs or assumptions guide one’s interpretation and understanding of new information.

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7
Q

what is bottom-up processing?

A

an approach to a perception that starts with incoming sensory information and uses it to build a perception of the world. It involves processing data step-by-step, from individual sensory details to a more complex understanding of the whole.

Bottom-up processing is like building with legos. You start with small pieces and put them together to make something bigger and more complex. In the same way, our brains start with tiny bits of information that come in through our senses, like what we see, hear, or touch, and use them to create a bigger picture of what’s happening around us.

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8
Q

how do sensation and perception work?

A

Raw data: basic information that is received through our senses, such as what we see, hear, smell, taste, or feel

Attention: the process by which we selectively focus our awareness on certain aspects of our sensory input while ignoring others.

Expectations and previous knowledge: the role that our prior experiences and expectations play in shaping our perception of sensory information. Comes from top down knowledge

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9
Q

how is sensory data translated?

A

into information used by our nervous system

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10
Q

what is transduction?

A

the process of converting an external stimulus into electrical activity within neurons

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11
Q

what are sensory receptors? (transduction)

A

special cells for converting external stimuli into neural activity

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12
Q

when is sensory adaptation greatest? (transduction)

A

activation is greatest when a stimulus is first detected

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13
Q

what is psychophysics?

A

“PSSPC”

the study of how we perceive sensory stimuli based on their physical characteristics

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14
Q

What is Absolute Threshold (psychophysics)

A

the lowest level of stimulus needed to be detected by the nervous system 50% of the time

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15
Q

What is an example of an absolute threshold?

A

If a person can hear a sound of 10 decibels, but not a sound of 5 decibels, then the absolute threshold of that person’s hearing is 10 decibels.

The final threshold varies from person to person and from the sensory system to the sensory system.

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16
Q

What is just a noticeable difference (JND)? (psychophysics)

A

the smallest change in the intensity of a stimulus that we can detect

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17
Q

what is Weber’s Law? (psychophysics)

A

the constant proportional relationship between the JND and the original stimulus intensity

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18
Q

What does JND stand for

A

just noticeable difference

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19
Q

What does light equal?

A

Light = electromagnetic radiation

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20
Q

What range do we only perceive of wavelengths?

A

narrow range

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21
Q

how do we measure wavelengths?

A

nanometers

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22
Q

what appears as different colors?

A

wavelengths

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23
Q

what is the retina?

A

innermost layer of the eye, where incoming light is converted into nerve impulses; contains photoreceptor cells

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24
Q

what is the vitreous humor (eye)

A

the jelly-like liquid that nourishes and gives shape to the eye

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25
Q

what is the iris? (eye)

A

colored area containing muscles that control the pupil

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26
Q

what is aqueous humor?

A

clear liquid that nourishes the eye

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27
Q

what is the pupil?

A

opening in the center of the iris that changes size depending on the amount of light in the environment

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28
Q

what is the cornea?

A

the curved transparent dome that bends incoming light waves so the image can be focused on the retina

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29
Q

what is the lens? (eye)

A

a transparent disc that changes shape to bring objects into focus

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30
Q

what is the fovea? (eye)

A

central area of retina where light rays are most sharply focused; greatest density of cones

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31
Q

what is the blind spot? (eye)

A

(optic disc) where the optic nerve leaves the eye; there are no photoreceptor cells here

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32
Q

what is the optic nerve? (eye)

A

transmits visual information from the retina to the brain

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33
Q

what is the eye muscle?

A

one if six surrounding muscles that rotate the eye in all directions

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34
Q

The retina:

A

at the back of the eye – responsible for visual transduction

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35
Q

where does the process of transduction occur?

A

in photoreceptors (rods and cones)

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36
Q

what is transduction?

A

refers to the conversion of physical stimuli (such as light, sound, or pressure) into electrical signals that can be processed by the nervous system.

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37
Q

what are photoreceptors?

A

specialized cells found in the retina of the eye that is responsible for detecting light and transmitting visual information to the brain.
There are two main types of photoreceptors: rods and cones.

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38
Q

what are rods and cones?

A

two types of photoreceptor cells found in the retina of the eye that is responsible for detecting light and transmitting visual information to the brain.

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39
Q

what are rods? (photoreceptors)

A

vision at low levels of light

Dark adaptation: gradual improvement in sensitivity of rods after a shift to near darkness

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40
Q

what is dark adaptation?

A

gradual improvement in sensitivity of rods after a shit to near darkness

refers to rods

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41
Q

what are cones?

A

vision at higher levels of light

Sensitive to light and fine detail

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42
Q

what is sensitive to light and fine detail? (photoreceptors)

A

cones

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43
Q

What are the Ganglion Cells?

A

cells that receive neural impulses and transmit information out of the eye

Axons from optic nerve

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44
Q

what is the optic nerve?

A

a bundle of nerve fibers that carries visual information from the retina of the eye to the brain.

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45
Q

what do rods and cones contain?

A

photopigments

different sensitivity thresholds

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46
Q

when does the transduction of light into neural energy occur?

A

through absorption of photons

7 photons of light can produce a visual response

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47
Q

how many photons o light can produce a visual response?

A

7

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48
Q

what is a photon?

A

a fundamental particle of light and other forms of electromagnetic radiation. It is a type of elementary particle, which means that it has no mass and travels at the speed of light.

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49
Q

what 2 things occur with pigment?

A

it isomerizes (changes form

sensitivity to light is reduced

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50
Q

what is the trichromatic theory?

A

Base our color vision on three primary colors

Red, green, and blue

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51
Q

how many different types of cones are there?

A

three

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52
Q

what are trichromats?

A

organisms that possess three types of color-sensitive photoreceptor cells, also known as cones, in their eyes.

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53
Q

what is colour blindness?

A

Inability to see some or all of the colours

Often due to the absence or reduced number of one type of cones

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54
Q

what are monochromats?

A

one type of cone, no colour vision

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55
Q

what are dichromats?

A

often have difficulty with shades of red and green

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56
Q

what is opponent process theory?

A

We perceive color using opponent cells

Red-green
Blue-yellow
Black-white

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57
Q

where is there evidence for opponent processes for visual perception?

A

in the ganglion cells, thalamus, and visual cortex

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58
Q

what can we not see?

A

two of the opposing colors in the same space

No reddish-green or yellowish-blue

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59
Q

when does the complimentary color appear?

A

after-images appear according to a pattern

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60
Q

what evidence is there to support both theories?

A

three types of cones

opponent processes in eye and brain

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61
Q

how do the theories work as complimentary with each other?

A

cone system produces opponent processes later in the visual process

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62
Q

what have specialized neurons?

A

visual areas

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63
Q

what are two important points about visual areas of specialized neurons?

A

different receptive fields and activated by different triggers

Receptive field: an area on the retina to which a neuron will respond

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64
Q

what is a receptive field?

A

an area on the retina to which a neuron will respond

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65
Q

what are center-surround cells?

A

“Dot Detectors”: neural cells in the visual system that respond selectively to specific arrangements of visual inputs, such as patterns of dots or oriented edges. These cells are important for the processing of visual information in the brain and are found in the primary visual cortex, which is the first stage of cortical processing in the visual pathway.

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66
Q

how do center-surround cells fire?

A

when light is presented to a small circular are in a specific location of retina

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67
Q

when are center-surround cells produced?

A

by the organization of receptors and ganglion cells

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68
Q

what are feature detection cells?

A

Detect lines and edges

Vary in complexity

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69
Q

what are simple cells?

A

detect lines and edges in very specific locations and orientations

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70
Q

what are complex cells?

A

Detect lines and edges in less restricted locations

71
Q

Bottom-up/Data-Driven Processing

A

Analysis and integration of basic features into a perceptual unit

Feature combination which create an object

72
Q

explain bottom-up processing

A

Bottom-up processing refers to the way our brain processes information by focusing on individual parts and building up to a whole picture, like putting together a puzzle. It’s a fundamental way that our brain makes sense of sensory information from the world around us.

73
Q

hierarchical organization

A

form perceptual units through a process of increasingly complex connections between simple units

74
Q

where does hierarchical organization take place?

A

in different areas of the visual cortex and connected areas (eg. in temporal and parietal lobes)

75
Q

what is parallel processing?

A

A system in which many different steps happen simultaneously

E.g., perception of many different features (e.g., shape, orientation, color)

76
Q

advantages of parallel processing?

A

Fast processing

Allows for top-down processing
- Each type of processing can be influenced by
the others

77
Q

what is top - down processing?

A

A.K.A. Conceptually-driven processing

When context and higher-level knowledge influence lower-level processes

78
Q

what is not a perfect representation of the world and why?

A

perception

it is influenced by many factors, including our prior knowledge, expectations, attention, and the context in which we experience things.

79
Q

what does form perception refer to?

A

perception of defined visual elements in the environment

- Objects, shapes, visual scenes
- Recognizable wholes
80
Q

what do we do without conscious effort?

A

readily process information

do not have to mentally “assemble the features”

81
Q

what did Gestalt Theory focus on?

A

the whole rather than the individual parts

82
Q

what is the principle of simplicity?

A

when we have sensory input our perceptual system usually tries to create a percept that is:

  • Simple
  • orderly
  • stable
83
Q

principle of simplicity

A

also known as Occam’s razor or the law of parsimony, is a guiding principle that states that when there are multiple explanations for a phenomenon, the simplest explanation is usually the best. In other words, when we are trying to understand something, we should look for the explanation that requires the fewest assumptions or variables.

This principle is often applied in scientific research, where researchers strive to develop theories that are simple, elegant, and parsimonious. The goal is to create theories that explain a wide range of phenomena with a minimal number of assumptions or variables.

84
Q

law of proximity

A

objects that are physically close to each other tend to be perceives as unified wholes or groups

85
Q

what is the law of similarity?

A

similar visual element form a whole

  • similar things are grouped together
    (shape, colour, etc)
86
Q

what is the law of closure?

A

objects are perceived as whole, even if they are not complete

87
Q

what is the law of good continuation?

A

Also known as law of continuity

we tend to perceive objects as forming smooth continuous patterns

88
Q

what is the law of symmetry?

A

objects that are around a center point format group or whole

89
Q

what is the law of figure-ground segregation?

A

tendency to structure the visual field into two parts: a figure and a background

bistable percepts: stimuli can be perceived in one of two different ways

90
Q

What do Gestalt principles give us insight into?

A

some of the ways we perceive form

91
Q

what can be considered a problem-solving process?

A

pattern and object recognition

92
Q

how does brain judge motion?

A

by rapidly comparing visual frames

93
Q

what is visual information from one frame compares to?

A

what is processed next

94
Q

what is the phi phenomenon?

A

perception of motion when stationary objects are flashed in quick succession

95
Q

what is the perception of movement based on?

A

partial information

96
Q

what is an analogy for visual perception?

A

much like a movie. it’s like a visual frame.

perceptual vision takes in information in rapid short bursts

97
Q

what is depth perception?

A

the ability to see spatial relations in three dimensions and judge distance

98
Q

what are monocular depth cues?

A

Pictorial Cues:

 - Relative Size 
  - Texture Gradient 
   - Interposition 
   - Linear Perspective
   - Height 
   - Light and Shadow
99
Q

What is depth through motion?

A

motion parallax

(The car goes by slowly if far away. The car goes by fast if closer)

100
Q

What is depth through motion?

A

motion parallax

a visual depth cue that helps us perceive the relative distances of objects in our environment by using motion. This cue is based on the idea that when we move, objects at different distances appear to move at different rates in our visual field.

(The car goes by slowly if far away. The car goes by fast if closer)

101
Q

what are binocular depth cues?

A

The brain uses the differences between the two views to create a sense of depth and three-dimensionality.

Binocular disparity

binocular convergence

102
Q

binocular disparity

A

each eye transmits slightly different information to the brain

(eye will turn inward)

103
Q

what is binocular convergence?

A

eyes turn inward to differing degrees when we focus on near objects

104
Q

redundancy in-depth perception…

A

Many visual cues, both monocular and binocular provide similar information

105
Q

perceptual constancy

A

we perceive the properties of objects to be constant even though the stimuli around us change when the viewing circumstances change

106
Q

what does perceptual constancy apply to?

A

size, shape, colour

107
Q

example of perceptual constancy

A

if we see a red apple in a dimly lit room, and then we see the same apple in bright sunlight, we still recognize it as the same object, even though the lighting conditions and the sensory information we receive are different.

108
Q

what are unconscious inferences?

A

we combine information from the stimulus with other cues from the environment to drive perception

the process by which our brain makes assumptions and fills in missing information in our perception of the world without us consciously realizing it. It is an automatic and often unconscious process that helps us make sense of the sensory information we receive.

109
Q

example of unconscious inference:

A

when we see a partially hidden object, our brain automatically fills in the missing parts based on our past experience and expectations. Similarly, when we see a blurry image, our brain makes assumptions about what the image might be based on our past experience and context.

110
Q

what is size constancy?

A

our ability to perceive objects as the same size no matter how far away they are from us
- Retinal image varies in size, perception remains constant

111
Q

what do we perceive size on the basis of?

A

apparent distance

112
Q

what perception is a nonconscious process?

A

visual perception

113
Q

what basis do we perceive size on?

A

apparent distance.

A non-conscious process

114
Q

what is shape constancy?

A

Our ability to perceive shapes as constant even as objects move or we move in relation to them

The retinal image of the shape actually changes

115
Q

what is Colour Constancy?

A

We perceive colours as (relatively) constant across lighting conditions, even though the actual image differs

use cues based on context/background

116
Q

Colour Vision theories:

A

Trichromatic and Opponent Process

theory are two different explanations of how humans perceive color.

117
Q

Shape and contour explanation:

A

Center-surround cells and feature detectors

two types of neurons in the visual system that are involved in processing shape and contour information.

118
Q

basic perceptual principles:

A

emphasizes the importance of perceptual organization and the ways in which people naturally organize their perceptions of the world into meaningful patterns or wholes, rather than just a collection of individual parts. The term “gestalt” comes from the German word for “shape” or “form.”

119
Q

Gestalt laws:

A

Law of proximity: Elements that are close together in space are perceived as a group.

Law of similarity: Elements that are similar in shape, size, color, or texture are perceived as a group.

Law of closure: People tend to perceive incomplete figures or shapes as complete by filling in the missing information.

Law of good continuation: People tend to perceive continuous lines and patterns rather than discontinuous ones.

Law of figure-ground: People tend to perceive objects as either being in the foreground (the figure) or the background (the ground).

120
Q

Motion, depth, constancy:

A

Motion, depth, and constancy are three important principles of perception that allow us to make sense of the world around us.

121
Q

Motion, depth, constancy:

A

Motion, depth, and constancy are three important principles of perception that allow us to make sense of the world around us.

122
Q

Motion, depth, constancy principles:

A

Motion perception: ability to perceive the movement of objects in the environment. This ability is based on the processing of visual cues such as changes in the size or shape of objects, changes in position over time, and changes in brightness or color. important for many everyday tasks, such as tracking moving objects, avoiding collisions, and navigating through the environment.

Depth perception: Depth perception refers to our ability to perceive the spatial relationships between objects in the environment. This ability is based on visual cues such as overlap, linear perspective, and shading. Depth perception is important for many everyday tasks, such as judging distances, reaching for objects, and navigating through the environment.

Constancy: Constancy refers to our ability to perceive objects as having stable properties, even when the sensory information we receive changes. For example, we perceive a door as having a constant size and shape even when it appears larger or smaller based on our distance from it. Constancy is important for allowing us to recognize objects in different contexts and under different viewing conditions.

123
Q

Putting it all together:

A

Bottom-up + Top-down processing

Parallel Processing

124
Q

Bottom-up VS. Top-down processing

A

Bottom-up:
it is driven by the physical features of the sensory input, such as color, shape, or texture. This approach is sometimes called data-driven processing because it relies on the incoming data to create meaning.

Top-down:
the way sensory information is processed in a way that is influenced by our prior knowledge, expectations, and beliefs. This approach is sometimes called conceptually-driven processing because it involves using higher-level cognitive processes to interpret incoming sensory information.

125
Q

parallel processing?

A

multiple tasks or processes are performed simultaneously by different parts of the brain. In other words, instead of completing one task at a time, the brain is able to divide tasks into smaller sub-tasks and process them in parallel.

126
Q

what visual perception can fail?

A

Object or pattern recognition

127
Q

what visual perception can fail?

A

Object or pattern recognition

128
Q

what is agnosia?

A

A failure or deficit in recognizing objects

The basic visual sensory system works

129
Q

Prosopagnosia

A

deficit in recognizing faces

130
Q

Prosopagnosia

A

deficit in recognizing faces

131
Q

apperceptive agnosia

A

deficit in recognizing patterns

132
Q

associative agnosia

A

deficit in associating meaning and a pattern

133
Q

what is sound?

A

The mechanical energy in the form of vibrations traveling through a medium (e.g., gas, liquid, solid) transmitted in waves

Hear best when it travels through the air

134
Q

Two physical properties of the auditory system?

A

Frequency: The number of cycles a wave completes in a given time
Measured in Hertz: cycles per second
Pitch: 20 – 20,000 Hz

Amplitude: height of the sound wave
Measured in decibels (dB)
Loudness: 0 – 160 dB

135
Q

parts of the outer ear:

A

Pinna: channels sound
Auditory Canal: channels sound to the eardrum
Eardrum: thin membrane that vibrates according to the frequency

136
Q

what does the middle ear contain?

A

Ossicles - a group of three small bones located in the middle ear.

They are known as the malleus, incus, and stapes, and are often referred to as the hammer, anvil, and stirrup, respectively. The ossicles connect the eardrum to the inner ear and are essential for hearing.

137
Q

middle ear: contains ossicles

A

Hammer, anvil, stirrup: vibrate at the frequency of the sound; transfer the vibrations to the inner ear

138
Q

Inner Ear:

A

oval window: receives amplified sound from ossicles, which cause vibrations in the fluid of the cochlea

organ of corti: contains hair cells that are stimulated by different vibrations and perform the process of transduction

139
Q

what is place theory?

A

pitch perception

Different frequencies stimulate different locations on the basilar membrane

140
Q

what is a basilar membrane?

A

narrow and stiff at the base; wide and flexible at the apex

141
Q

what selectively vibrates basilar membrane?

A

waves

higher pitch sounds do not travel as fas as lower pitch sounds

142
Q

what does not travel as far as lower-pitch sounds?

A

higher pitch sounds

143
Q

frequency theory:

A

tones with different frequencies cause neurons to fire at different rates

explains low-frequency range for pitch perception; maximum 100-500 Hz

144
Q

volley theory:

A

sets of neurons fire just out of sync with each other to code for frequency above the rate at which neurons can fire

frequency between 500-5000 Hz

145
Q

how does the brain make comparisons?

A

sounds reach ears at (slightly) different times and intensities

146
Q

Interaural level (intensity) difference:

A

sounds arrive at each ear at different times due to different spatial locations

The brain calculates subtle differences in the arrival of sound at each ear

Most effective for low frequencies

147
Q

olfaction

A

sense of smell

smell guides (or biases) taste

148
Q

how is smell a chemical sense?

A

chemicals in substance bind to receptors

chemicals must be volatile (airborne)

149
Q

what are humans capable of detecting?

A

a large variety of smells

150
Q

what can be underestimated?

A

human olfaction (sense of smells)

151
Q

Volatile chemical

A

substances are picked up by olfactory receptor cells

each olfactory cell detects one type of compound

152
Q

what are odors based on?

A

complex coding

153
Q

where is the “smell” message sent to?

A

olfactory bulbs

Relayed to the limbic system and other areas

No Thalamus

Odors can evoke memories

154
Q

what is gustation?

A

chemical sense

the ability to detect and perceive the chemical composition of substances in the mouth, primarily through the action of taste receptors on the tongue.

155
Q

where is air force as we chew?

A

into the nasal cavity

156
Q

what is much of what we chew based in?

A

olfaction (sense of smells)

157
Q

what is critical for sampling food?

A

Taste (along with smell)

158
Q

five major tastes

A

Sweet, salty, sour, bitter, umami
Some evidence for “fatty” and “starchy”
Taste maps are a myth

159
Q

what are a myth?

A

taste maps

diagrams or illustrations that depict the distribution of taste receptors on the tongue and the corresponding areas of taste perception. The idea of taste maps originated from a misinterpretation of a study in the early 20th century, which suggested that different regions of the tongue were more sensitive to specific tastes. However, subsequent research has shown that all tastes can be detected in all regions of the tongue, although certain regions may be more sensitive to certain tastes. Taste maps are now considered a popular myth and are not supported by modern scientific evidence.

160
Q

what do taste buds detect?

A

taste

soluble chemical substance

situated in gaps between papillae

161
Q

what comes in different routes, but are combined in the brain?

A

sensory information for smell and taste

162
Q

what affects preferences and what disgusts us?

A

culture

163
Q

somatosensory

A

sense of touch, pressure, temperature, and injury

164
Q

what is very specific or generalized?

A

stimulation

165
Q

how do we sense somatosensory stimuli?

A

Free Nerve Endings
- Can be polymodal
- Are often nociceptors
Other specialized nerve endings
- Slow and fast-adapting
- Many types: can be very specialized

166
Q

how does the perception of touch and pain travel?

A

via somatic nerves to spinal cord

167
Q

what may trigger spinal reflexes?

A

somatic information

168
Q

withdrawal reflex

A

pull away prior to conscious decision

169
Q

where is the information sent to?

A

somatosensory cortex and associational areas (to be combines with other information)

170
Q

Proprioception:

A

Our sense of body position
Proprioceptors sense muscle stretch and force

171
Q

Vestibular Sense:

A

Our sense of equilibrium or balance
Semicircular canals are filled with fluid; connected to utricle and saccule
Information is sent to parts of brainstem that control eye muscles

172
Q

Bringing many senses together

A

Perception does not perfectly match reality – it is constructed by the brain

173
Q

parallel processing

A

the brain processes many types o information simultaneously to give you a perception of the world

Psych 102 (10 decks)

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