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Psych 102 > Chapter 3 - Biology > Flashcards

Chapter 3 - Biology Flashcards

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1
Q

what are neurons?

A

Nerve cells specialized for communication

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2
Q

how many neurons in the human brain

A

Approx. 85 billion

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3
Q

how many neuron connections are in the brain

A

Approx. 160 trillion

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4
Q

every psychological experience is based in ___

A

biological processes

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5
Q

what does a dendrite do?

A

projection that picks up impulses from other neurons

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6
Q

synapse

A

the terminal point of axon branch which releases neurotransmitters

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7
Q

node

A

gap in the myelin sheath of an axon which helps the conduction of nerve impulses

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8
Q

cell body

A

material needed by the neuron are made here

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9
Q

axon terminal

A

synaptic knob

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10
Q

axon

A

nerve fiber projecting from the cell body that carries nerve impulses

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11
Q

myelin sheath

A

fatty coat that insulates the axons of nerve cells, speeding the transmission of impulses

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12
Q

glial cells

A
  • Help to form the blood-brain barrier (astrocytes)
  • Produces myelin for neurons (oligodendrocytes)
  • Response to injury; cleans away debris (microglial cells)
  • May be important for learning and memory
  • ratio of glial cells to neurons is around 1:1
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13
Q

presynaptic neuron

A
  • the neuron that is sending message
  • before the synapse
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14
Q

postsynaptic neuron

A
  • the neuron that is receiving the message
  • after the synapse
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15
Q

what is neural communication?

A

an electro-chemical process

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16
Q

what is an action potential

A
  • The electrical impulse that travels down the axon, triggering the release of neurotransmitters
  • All-or-none principle: either a neuron with “fire” or it won’t
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17
Q

how does neural communication work?

A

Energy is in the form of an electrical potential
The difference in voltage inside vs. outside the neuron

Voltages inside and outside depending on the concentration of positively charged ions and negatively charged ions

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18
Q

where do cells begin?

A

at baseline or resting potential

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19
Q

when is action potential triggered?

A

when neuron is stimulated by sufficient excitatory inputs

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20
Q

what is the refractory period?

A

More negative than the resting state
Inhibits new action potentials for about 1 ms

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21
Q

what happens when neurotransmitters bind?

A

they can excite or inhibit the post-synaptic neuron

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22
Q

excitatory function

A

depolarize the post synaptic neuron — Na + ions into cell

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23
Q

inhibitory function

A

hyperpolarize the post-synaptic neuron — Cl into cell

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24
Q

what are graded potentials?

A

Post-synaptic potentials can be excitatory or inhibitory depending on whether positively or negatively charged chemicals flow into the cell

Increase or decrease the likelihood that the post-synaptic neuron will fire

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25
Q

when are neurotransmitters released?

A

from receptors for re-uptake or inactivation

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25
Q

when are neurotransmitters released?

A

when an excitatory signal is sent

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26
Q

how many neurotransmitters were identified?

A

100

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27
Q

2 chemical messengers

A

excitatory - “excite” the neuron and cause it to “fire off the message,” meaning, the message continues to be passed along to the next cell.

inhibitory - block or prevent the chemical message from being passed along any farther.

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28
Q

what is glutamate?

A

One of the most common NTs in CNS

Excitatory functions

Learning and memory

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29
Q

what is toxicity?

A

leads to cell death

associated with schizophrenia, Alzheimer’s disease, Parkinson’s disease, epilepsy

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30
Q

what is Gamma-Aminobutyric acid (Gaba)

A

One of the most common NTs

Inhibitory functions

Learning, memory, and sleep

Too much GABA can lead to coma

Too little GABA is associated with seizures and increases emotional activity

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31
Q

Acetylcholine (ACh):

A

Excitatory

Arousal and selective attention

Sleep

Learning and memory: Memory loss in Alzheimer’s Disease (partly) associated with the destruction of acetylcholine-producing neurons

Muscle control

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32
Q

what are monoamines?

A

neurotransmitters and neuromodulators that contain one amino group connected to an aromatic ring by a two-carbon chain

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33
Q

Dopamine

A

the hypothalamus is a key production site

reward and reinforcement

arousal, motivation, motor control

cocaine and opiates affect dopamine production

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34
Q

serotonin

A

Regulation of mood, temperature, appetite, behaviour

Muscle contraction and sleep

Affects learning and memory

Antidepressants mimic the effect of serotonin

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35
Q

norepinephrine

A

fight or flight response

increased heart rate and blood flow

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36
Q

Anandamide

A

Eating, motivation, and memory

Sleep, immune function

Marijuana (THC) binds to endocannabinoid receptors

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37
Q

Endorphins

A

Type of neuropeptide

Pain reduction

Opioids bind to endorphin receptors

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38
Q

what is plasticity?

A

the ability of the nervous system to change

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39
Q

plasticity in development

A
  1. Growth of dendrites and axons
  2. Synaptogenesis
  3. Pruning
  4. Myelination
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40
Q

neural plasticity and learning

A

formation of new synapses

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41
Q

long term potentiation of neural plasticity

A

the process by which connections between neurons are strengthened

— Biological changes in neurochemicals and receptors —

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42
Q

neural plasticity and injury

A

serious damage is often permanent

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43
Q

neurogenesis

A

the creation of new neurons in the brain

— limited in adults —

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44
Q

central nervous system (CNS)

A

part of the nervous system containing the brain and spinal cord that controls the mind and behavior

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45
Q

what is the command center?

A

CNS - integrates information

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46
Q

what is CNS protected by?

A

three layers of meninges and cerebral ventricles

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47
Q

key areas of CNS

A

Cerebrum
Limbic System
Brainstem

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48
Q

the cerebrum

A

the younger part of the brain

includes limbic system, basal ganglia, olfactory bulb, and cerebral cortex

two cerebral hemispheres

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49
Q

what is the cerebral cortex responsible for?

A

Complex cognition: responsible for analyzing sensory experiences and higher-level brain functions

Ex: language, metacognitions; reasoning

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50
Q

parts of the frontal lobes

A

central sulcus

motor cortex

prefrontal cortex

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51
Q

central sulcus

A

divides the frontal lobe from the rest of the cerebral cortex

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52
Q

motor cortex

A

involved in voluntary movement

size of area reflects precision of motor control

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53
Q

prefrontal cortex

A

personality, planning, decision making

self awarness

language — Broca Area

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54
Q

parietal lobes

A

upper - middle portion o cerebral cortex

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55
Q

parts of parietal lobes

A

somatosensory cortex: just behind the central sulcus. sensations of touch, pain, pleasure

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56
Q

important functions of parietal lobes

A

spatial perception and tracking

relays information to motor cortex

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57
Q

temporal lobes

A

lower part of cerebral cortex

58
Q

important functions of temporal lobes

A

responsible for controlling and directing various functions:

hearing

language comprehension - Wernicke’s area

memory storage

object and facial recognition

59
Q

where is occipital lobes located?

A

rear of the brain

60
Q

occipital lobes important funtion?

A

visual processes (visual cortex)

humans have comparatively large visual cortex

61
Q

basal ganglia

A

sub - cortical structures

61
Q

what is basal ganglia involved in?

A

voluntary movement
- action selection
- motor preparation
-timing
-task switching

62
Q

what disorders are associated with damage to basal ganglia?

A

motor disorders

63
Q

thalamus

A

major sensory relay station
- sends information to specialized processing centres

64
Q

hypothalamus

A

involved in regulating behavior

  • hunger, sexual behavior, emotional behavior
  • sleep, body temp. hormone function, movement
65
Q

amygdala

A

involved in the excitement, arousal, fear

emotional experiences

66
Q

Hippocampus

A

critical for memory formation

episodic + somatic memory

67
Q

what is episodic memory?

A

type of memory that allows us to remember specific events or experiences that have happened to us in the past.

68
Q

what is somatic memory?

A

In the context of trauma and PTSD, “somatic memory” may refer to the way that the body holds onto memories of traumatic experiences, even when the person doesn’t consciously remember them.

In the context of movement and physical activity, “somatic memory” may refer to the way that the body learns and remembers how to perform movements and tasks.

In the context of biology and anatomy, “somatic memory” may refer to the way that genetic information is stored in somatic cells (non-reproductive cells in the body) and passed on to new cells as they divide.

69
Q

where is the brain stem located?

A

located at the rear of the brain, under cortex and other strutures

70
Q

what functions does brain cell perform?

A

basic functions that keep us alive and is involved in some higher-level functions

71
Q

what are the important parts of the brain stem?

A

reticular activating system

Pons

Medulla

Cerebellum

72
Q

what does the reticular activating system do? (part of brain stem)

A

arousal and maintenance of arousal

Ex: waking us from sleep and keeping us awake (we take this for granted)

73
Q

what is pons? (part of brain stem)

A

connect cortex to cerebellum

a major bridge between the cerebellum controls a variety of major functions

74
Q

what is the medulla? (part of brain stem)

A

responsible for heartbeat and breathing

controls other vital functions

75
Q

what is the cerebellum (part of the brain stem)

A

motor and cognitive functions

76
Q

explain the spinal cord

A

thick bundle of nerves that conveys signals between the brain and body

77
Q

what do sensory neurons do? (spinal cord)

A

carry messages from sensory receptors to the brain

78
Q

what do motor neurons do? (spinal cord)

A

carry messages aways from the CNS to muscles and glands

79
Q

what do interneurons do?

A

relay information from sensory neurons to motor neurons

Ex: reflexes

80
Q

What is the peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

A

Nerves in the body that extends outside the central nervous system

81
Q

What are key branches of PNS?

A

Somatic Nervous System: Carries information from CNS to body
- Regulates voluntary movement

Autonomic Nervous System: Allows brain to interact with organs
- Regulates involuntary actions

82
Q

somatic nervous system

A

carries information from CNS to the body

regulates voluntary movement

83
Q

autonomic nervous system:

A

allows brain to interact with organs

regulates involuntary actions

84
Q

what are the two branches of the autonomic nervous system?

A

sympathetic nervous system: fight or flight functions

Parasympathetic nervous system: Rest and digestion

85
Q

what was phrenology?

A

theory in 1800s

founded by Franz Gall

incorrect map of the mind

86
Q

what did bumps on the skull correspond to in Phrenology?

A

enlarged areas of the brain

87
Q

what did enlarged areas of the brain indicate in phrenology?

A

greater psychological capacities

88
Q

what was phrenology based on?

A

anecdotes (personal stories or observations that are shared by individuals as a way of providing insight into their own experiences or the experiences of others)

89
Q

what was falsifiable? (altered or represented falsely)

A

phrenology

90
Q

what are lesions?

A

A change in the structure of a tissue or an organ due to injury or disease usually results in the impairment of normal function.

Ex: head injury; surgery

91
Q

what is useful for observing loss of function?

A

lesions (especially when damage is localized)

lesions are changes to structure or tissue, everyday life accidents like car accidents or sports

92
Q

what is direct stimulation?

A

The direct application of electrical current to the surface of the cortex

Used by Penfield and others to map the cortex

93
Q

what are electroencephalograms (EEGs)

A

the electrode on a person’s scalp which picks up brain waves

event-related potentials

measures by the milisecond

94
Q

what is a non-invasive - systemic investigation of the brain?

A

EEGs

95
Q

EEGs have good ____ resolution

A

temporal

96
Q

EEgs have poor ___ resolution

A

spatial

97
Q

what is structural imaging?

A

produces images of the different structures of the bain

98
Q

what are computerized tomograohy

A

X-rays

99
Q

what is magnetic resonance imaging?

A

magnetic field

100
Q

how does a CT scan work?

A

head in a large tube, taking Xrays from different angles

101
Q

how does MRI work?

A

large tube using strong magnetic field

produces clear images, especially with respect to soft tissue

good for investigating concussion or tumour

102
Q

what is positron emission tomography

A

Increased blood flow to active areas of the brain

A radioactive isotope is tracked by the scanner

103
Q

functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

A

Blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD signal)
- No radioactive isotope

Shows the brain in action
- Both structures and activity is seen
- Time lag (several hundred milliseconds to 6 seconds)

104
Q

Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

A

An electromagnetic pulse is delivered to a specific part of the brain
- Strong pulse inhibits the function
- Can be used on healthy volunteers

105
Q

weak pulse can ___ function

A

increase

106
Q

who can TMS be used on and why?

A

healthy volunteers
- no need to cut brain open

107
Q

what has TMS been used to investigate?

A

different processes

can be more experimental with these technologies as they are not harmful

108
Q

what has weak pulse been used for?

A

depression

109
Q

what is magnetoencephalography? (MEG)

A

Measures electromagnetic fields produced by groups of neurons
Directly measures neural activity

110
Q

MEG has high ___ resolution

A

high temporal resolution (measures activity down to the millisecond)

may produce an alternative to FMR (more directly)

111
Q

What is not an exact picture of the brain?

A

brain imaging

111
Q

What is not an exact picture of the brain?

A

brain imaging

112
Q

what is an fMRI? (measures the small changes in blood flow that occur with brain activity)

A

a computer-generated image of the brain and activation sites. its based on indirect measures

113
Q

what is the subtractive method

A

Measure baseline, then subtract it from “active” condition

114
Q

what are genes?

A

basic units of heredity. made up of small segments of DNA.

115
Q

what are genotypes?

A

the complement of genes an organism inherits

116
Q

what are chromosomes?

A

small structures within the nucleus of cells that carry many genes

117
Q

What is DNA?

A

Comprised four bases (G, T, C, A)
Different genes are coded by different sequences of these bases

118
Q

phenotype

A

observable characteristics of an organism, which result from the interaction of genetics and environment

119
Q

what is natural selection

A

Organisms adapted to their environments are better able to survive and reproduce

120
Q

when does the process of natural selection happen?

A

over generations of organisms, not within a single organism

121
Q

what is sexual selection?

A

some traits make organisms more able to access or attract a mate

These traits will be passed on more frequently compared to less desirable or less adaptive traits and will

122
Q

not all traits are ___

A

adaptive

123
Q

what is the meaning of “not all traits are adaptive”?

A

traits that currently exist may have been important at one point, but no longer confer a survival or mating advantage

124
Q

what used to be adaptive but may not be anymore?

A

traits

some traits that were adaptive are not longer adaptive

true of humans in modern society

125
Q

what contributes to ideas of losing favor as a means to understand complex behavior?

A

social Darwinism and Eugenics

126
Q

what is social darwinism?

A

belief that some individuals and societies are naturally more fit for survival and success than others, based on the principles of natural selection and evolution.

127
Q

what is social Darwinism?

A

belief that some individuals and societies are naturally more fit for survival and success than others, based on the principles of natural selection and evolution.

128
Q

what is Eugenics?

A

the idea that some people are born better than others, and that society can be improved by encouraging “better” people to have children and discouraging “worse” people from having children.

the belief that people’s abilities and qualities are inherited and that by controlling who has children, they can create a better and more successful society.

now considered to be deeply unethical

129
Q

what is a key concept of evolution and behavior?

A

no single gene codes for a behavior

combinations of genes influence behavior

130
Q

what does research regarding evolution and behaviour focus on?

A

estimating heritability of traits and bahaviours

131
Q

what does research focus on regarding evolution and behavior?

A

focuses on estimating heritability of traits and behaviors

132
Q

heritability

A

An estimate of the variability in a trait that can be attributed to genetics within a group

133
Q

what traits differ in heritability?

A

high heritability of height

moderate heritability for personality

134
Q

what does heritability estimate?

A

only applies to groups/populations, not individuals

135
Q

who do heritability estimates apply to ?

A

particular groups in specific environments - they are not generalizable

136
Q

what are the twin studies?

A

Monozygotic and dizygotic twins

used to study heritability

137
Q

idea behind twin studies

A

twins separated at birth

similarities between them allow for estimate of heritability

138
Q

what are adoption studies?

A

compare children to adoptive and biological parents

139
Q

what does evolutionary psychology not promote?

A

genetic determinism

140
Q

what is the result of genes and environment?

A

complex behaviours

141
Q

What do we do with information about the heritability of traits and behaviors?

A

Selecting traits in children

Psych 102 (10 decks)

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