chapter 9 - foundations of group behavior Flashcards
group
a group is two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who have come together to achieve certain objectives.
For example, consider a sales group from a regional office of a large insurance company: The group is responsible for selling insurance to local citizens,
formal group
A formal group is defined by the organization’s structure, with designated work assignments and established tasks.
In formal groups, the behaviors that team members should engage in are stipulated by and directed toward organizational goals. The members of an airline flight crew are a formal group, for example.
informal group
an informal group is neither formally structured nor organizationally determined and often meets to fulfill social needs or to bind employees with common interests.
Three employees from different departments who regularly have lunch or coffee together are an informal group
social identity theory
Our tendency to personally invest in the accomplishments of a group can be explained by social identity theory, which is in many ways a complementary concept to social categorization discussed in the chapter on diversity.
social categorization
Social categorization explains why people categorize others as belonging to different groups
Social categorization processes can sometimes “lead people to think of people who share their social identity as the ingroup and people from different groups as outgroups.”
some research suggests that favoritism and not hostility might cause most discriminatory behaviors:
social identity
social identity explains why people identify with particular group
Social identity theory proposes that people have emotional reactions to the failure or success of their group because their self-esteem gets tied to whatever happens to the group
Employees might feel proud at the company’s successes, feel angry and threatened when the company is threatened, or even feel schadenfreude (i.e., pleasure due to another’s misfortune) when competitors suffer
Within our organizations and groups, how do we develop many identities? through…
(1) relational identification, when we connect with others because of our roles, and
(2) collective identification, when we connect with the aggregate characteristics of our groups.
In the workplace, our identification with our groups is stronger than with our organizations (recall our discussion of organizational identification from the chapter on job attitudes), but both are important to positive outcomes in attitudes and behaviors
describe the punctuated-equilibrium model of group development - list the steps (THERE IS A PICTURE THAT GOES WITH THIS DRAW IT)
Temporary groups with finite deadlines pass through a unique sequencing of actions (or inaction) called the punctuated-equilibrium mode
- The first meeting sets the group’s direction.
- The first phase of group activity is one of inertia and thus makes slower progress.
- A transition takes place when the group has used up half its allotted time.
- This transition initiates major changes.
- A second phase of inertia follows the transition.
- The group’s last meeting is characterized by markedly accelerated activity
the punctuated-equilibrium model defined
The punctuated-equilibrium model is a set of phases that temporary groups go through the involves transitions between inertia and activity
explained further:
“At the first meeting, the group’s general purpose and direction are set. Then the group establishes a framework of assumptions and principles to which the group will conform.”
“Once set, the group’s direction is solidified and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of its life. This is a period of inertia—the group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action, even if it gains new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions.”
“The midpoint appears to work like an alarm clock, heightening members’ awareness that their time is limited and that they need to get moving. This transition ends the first phase and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes, dropping of old patterns, and adoption of new perspectives. The transition sets a revised direction for the next phase, in which the group executes plans created during the transition period. The group’s last meeting is characterized by a final burst of activity to finish its work.”
does the punctuated equilibrium model apply to all groups?
no.
“Keep in mind, however, that the punctuated equilibrium model does not apply to all groups but is suited to the finite quality of temporary task groups working under a time deadline.”
what are the other defining properties that are important to understanding groups in an organization (besides groups)?
roles, norms, status, size, and cohesion
role
Role: A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit.” “a function assumed by someone occupying a given position in a group
role perception
Our view of how we are supposed to act in a given situation is a role perception. We get role perceptions from stimuli all around us (e.g., our family, our coworkers, YouTube, etc.)
role expectations
Role expectations are the way others believe you should act in a given context.
ex:
- A U.S. federal judge is viewed as having propriety and dignity, while a football coach may be seen as aggressive, dynamic, and inspiring to the players. Role expectations influence role perceptions
- Similarly, leaders’ voice and actions surrounding ethical issues influence the ethical role perceptions of followers.
psychological contract
In the workplace, we often look at role expectations through the perspective of the…. psychological contract: an unwritten agreement that exists between employees and employers (including senior management, supervisors, coworkers, recruiters, and gig workers) that establishes mutual expectations
Although the terms of the psychological contract can change over time,33 in general, management is expected to treat employees fairly, provide acceptable working conditions, clearly communicate what is a fair day’s work, and give feedback on how well employees are doing
role conflict
When compliance with one role makes it difficult to comply with another, the result is role conflict: “A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations.”
At the extreme, two or more roles may be clashing, like when professors are expected to be excellent teachers and researchers when they normally only have enough time to perform one of the roles well.
interrole conflict
we can experience interrole conflict when the expectations of the different groups we belong to are in opposition
Many people hold multiple jobs, perhaps one that is primary (e.g., software engineer) and a secondary job (e.g., guitarist in a metal band). These jobs might inevitably come into conflict, and indeed, research shows that jobs like this can interfere with the primary job.
during mergers and acquisitions, employees can be torn between their identities as members of their original organization and of the new parent company. Multinational organizations have also been shown to lead to dual identification—with the local division and with the international organization
norms
All groups have established norms—acceptable standards of behavior shared by members that express what they ought to do and ought not to do under certain circumstances
Different groups, communities, and societies have different norms, but they all have them. Norms are not just leader-established, opinion-driven policies: For them to be adopted (and not abandoned after three days), they need to be accepted by all.
The emotions of group members, especially those who work together daily, can amplify the power of norms
conformity
Considerable evidence suggests that groups can place strong pressures to change to match the group’s standards. The impact that group pressures for conformity (the adjustment of one’s behavior to align with the norms of the group)
reference groups
Do individuals conform to the pressures of all groups to which they belong? Again, obviously not
When they do conform, it is most likely to their reference groups, important groups in which people are aware of other members, define themselves as members or would like to be members, and feel group members are significant
conformity in different situations: “leading researchers to believe that group dynamics, rather than the environment, influenced behavior.”
Conformity effects are not always bad: For example, people can conform to prosocial norms, such as generosity in donating, and can even feel more empathy as a result.
the researchers first examined the relationship between the physical environment”
“As they increased the light level for the experimental group of workers, output rose for that unit and the control group. But as they dropped the light level, productivity continued to increase.
status
Status: —a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others—permeates every society.86 Even the smallest group shows differences in member status over time
Status is a significant motivator and has major behavioral consequences when individuals perceive a disparity between what they believe their status is and what others perceive it to be
status characteristics theory and its 3 sources
According to status characteristics theory, (a theory stating that differences in status characteristics create status hierarchies within groups) status tends to derive from one of three sources:
- The power a person wields over others.
Because they likely control the group’s resources, people who control group outcomes tend to be perceived as high status. - A person’s ability to contribute to a group’s goals.
People whose contributions are critical to the group’s success tend to have high status. - An individual’s personal characteristics.
Someone whose personal characteristics are positively valued by the group (good looks, intelligence, money, or a friendly personality) typically has higher status than someone with fewer valued attributes.
social loafing
Social loafing directly challenges the assumption that the productivity of the group as a whole should at least equal the sum of the productivity of the individuals in it, no matter the group size.
“What causes social loafing? It may be a belief that others in the group are not carrying their fair share. Particularly, the group must believe the social loafer is acting in an exploitive manner (benefiting at the expense of other team members)
ways to prevent social loafing
Set group goals so the group has a common purpose to strive toward.
Increase intergroup competition that focuses on the shared group outcome.
Engage in peer evaluations.
Select members who have high motivation and prefer to work in groups.
Base group rewards in part on each member’s unique contributions and structure work so that each member’s contribution can be identified
cohesion
For a group to be highly functioning, it must act cohesively as a unit. Groups differ in their cohesion—the degree to which members hold a shared bond with one another and are motivated to stay in the group
how cohesion affects group effectiveness
Some work groups are cohesive because the members have spent a great deal of time together, the group’s small size or purpose facilitates high interaction, or external threats have brought members close together.
Research suggests that the connections made in cohesive teams may even remain active after teams disband.
Cohesion affects group productivity, and vice versa.It can also lead individual group members to engage in OCBs and feel more confident in their jobs, and eventually, it can lead to growth in productivity over time. However, the influence of cohesion may depend on other group characteristics.
But if cohesion is high and performance norms are low, productivity will be low. Conversely, when cohesion is low and performance norms are high, productivity will be moderate (but not as high as it would be if the group were cohesive)
what can you do to encourage group cohesiveness
Make the group smaller.
Encourage agreement with group goals.
Increase the time members spend together.
Increase the group’s status and the perceived difficulty of attaining membership.
Stimulate competition with other groups.
Give rewards to the group rather than to individual members.
Physically isolate the group.
strengths of group decision making - make complete information and knowledge
Groups generate more complete information and knowledge.
By aggregating the resources of several individuals, groups bring more input as well as heterogeneity into the decision process (as long as this information is reliable).
They offer increased diversity of views. This opens the opportunity to consider more approaches and alternatives.
Finally, groups lead to increased acceptance of a solution. During decision making, members are more likely to be accepting when dissenting opinions are framed as debates rather than disagreements.
weaknesses of group decision making - conformity pressures
Group decisions are time-consuming because groups typically take more time to reach a solution, especially for virtual groups.
There are conformity pressures. The desire by group members to be accepted and considered an asset to the group can squash any overt disagreement and cause group members to settle for less
Group discussion can be dominated by one or a few members. If they are low- and medium-ability members or if the information they provide is unreliable, the group’s overall effectiveness will suffer
Also, setting a norm that allows “lone dissenters,” or group members who have divergent opinions, can reduce conformity and the influence of dominating members
Finally, group decisions suffer from ambiguous responsibility. In an individual decision, it is clear who is accountable for the outcome.
group think
Groupthink describes situations in which group pressures for conformity deter the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views. Groupthink negatively impacts many groups and can dramatically hinder their performance.
how to minimize it:
First, they can monitor group size. People grow more intimidated and hesitant as group size increases. Managers should also encourage group leaders to play an impartial role. Leaders should actively seek input from all members, especially in the early stages of deliberation. In addition, managers should appoint one group member to play the role of devil’s advocate, overtly challenging the majority position and offering divergent perspectives. Yet another suggestion is to use exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives without threatening the group or intensifying identity protection
group shift
Groupshift, or group polarization, describes the way group members tend to exaggerate their initial positions when discussing a given set of alternatives to arrive at a solution. We can view this group polarization as a special case of groupthink. The group’s decision reflects the dominant decision-making norm—toward greater caution or more risk—that develops during discussion.
interacting groups
he most common form of group decision making takes place in interacting groups. Members rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate. But as our discussion of groupthink demonstrated, interacting groups often censor themselves and pressure individual members toward conformity of opinion. Brainstorming and the nominal group technique can reduce problems inherent in the traditional interacting group.
brainstorming
Brainstorming can overcome the pressures for conformity that dampen creativity by encouraging any and all alternatives while withholding criticism.
In a typical brainstorming session, the group leader states the problem in a clear manner so all group members understand. Members then freewheel as many alternatives as they can in a given length of time. To encourage members to “think the unusual,” no criticism is allowed, even of the most bizarre suggestions, and all ideas are recorded for later discussion and analysis.
nominal group technique - list steps
The nominal group technique may be more effective. This technique restricts discussion and interpersonal communication during the decision-making process. Group members are all physically present, as in a traditional meeting, but they operate independently.
- Before any discussion takes place, each member independently records ideas about the problem.
- Afterward, each member presents one idea to the group. No discussion takes place until all ideas have been presented and recorded.
- The group discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them.
- Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas. The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision.
strengths of group decision making
- complete info and knowledge
- increased diversity of views
- new approaches and alternatived
- ability to outperform individuals
- acceptance of a solution
weakneds of group decision making
- time consuming
- conformity pressures
- 1+ members can dominate convo
- decisions suffer from ambigious responsibilities
