chapter 7 - motivation concepts Flashcards
motivation (on exam)
We define motivation as the processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal
while general motivation is concerned with effort toward any goal, we will narrow the focus to organizational goals
intensity
Intensity describes how hard a person tries. This is the element most of us focus on when we talk about motivation.
However, high intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable job performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization.
persistance
motivation has a persistence dimension. This measures how long a person can maintain effort.
Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (on exam)
hypothesizes that within every human being there is a hierarchy of five needs humans are motivated to meet: sixth is intrinsic values
(bottom)
Physiological. Hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs.
Safety. Security and protection from physical and emotional harm.
Social-belongingness (originally love). Affection, love, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship.
Esteem. Internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement as well as external factors such as status, recognition, and attention.
Self-actualization. Drive to become what we can become; includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillment.
(top)
as each need becomes well satisfied, the next one becomes dominant
intrinsic values
which is said to have originated from Maslow, but it has not gained widespread acceptance
fredrick herzberg’s two factor theory (motivation-hygeine theory) (on exam)
He asked people to describe, in detail, situations in which they felt exceptionally good or bad about their jobs
Two-factor theory is inherently tied to job satisfaction (see the chapter on job attitudes) and expresses motivation in terms of intrinsic and extrinsic factors that impact job satisfaction.
traditional view is: satisfaction vs. dissatisfaction
herzberg’s view is:
motivators: satisfaction vs no satisfaction
hygiene factor: no dissatisfaction vs dissatisfaction
hygiene factors
Conditions such as quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical work conditions, relationships with others, and job security are hygiene factors
if we want to motivate people on their jobs
we should emphasize factors associated with the work itself or with outcomes directly derived from it
mcclelland’s theory of needs (on exam)
Unlike Maslow’s hierarchy, suggests that needs are more like motivating factors than prerequisites for survival.
Three primary needs:
Need for achievement (nAch) is the need to excel or achieve to a set of standards
Need for power (nPow) is the need to make others behave in a way they would not have otherwise
Need for affiliation (nAff) is the need to establish friendly and close interpersonal relationships
three core components/categories of motivation theories
The content category is primarily concerned with fundamental motives and individual differences in motivation states common to all people. This category includes self-determination theory, regulatory-focus theory, and job engagement theory.
The context category involves sources of motivation that stem from the contexts people find themselves in. For instance, the theories of reinforcement, behaviorism, and social learning (which some would also consider to be classics) would fit in here.
process category involves the direct motivation theories that focus on the process of choosing and striving toward goals. This includes expectancy, goal-setting, and self-efficacy theories
self-determination theory (sdt) (on exam)
proposes that employees’ well-being and performance are influenced by the nature of their motivation for certain job activities.
For instance, a sense of choice over what they do, how motivating the task is in and of itself, how rewards influence motivation, and how work satisfies psychological needs are all fundamental components of SDT.
either autonomous or controlled
cognitive evaluation theory (cte) (on exam)
a sub-theory that suggests that extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay) reduce people’s intrinsic interest in a task.
When people are paid for work, it feels less like something they want to do and more like something they must do
intrinsic motivation contributes to the quality of work, while incentives contribute to the quantity of work.
self-concordance theory (on exam)
which considers how strongly people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values. People who pursue work goals that align with their interests and values are more satisfied with their jobs, feel they fit into their organizations better, and may perform better.
need for autonomy vs. need for competence
need for autonomy (that corresponds with the need to feel in control) and need for competence (the need to feel like we are good at what we do and proud of it)
promotion vs prevention focus
promotion focus strive for advancement and accomplishment and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals.
Promotion-focused people responded better to “what you can do to help you stay healthy
Those with a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals.
prevention-focused people responded better to “what you can do to keep America safe
ideally it is best to be both depending on the situation
job engagement
the investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance
two ways ob views engagement
One is as a job attitude, a level of enthusiasm people have toward their work. The other is as a motivational state
(context-based theory of motivation) (on exam) reinforcement theory
argues that reinforcement conditions behavior.
Reinforcement theory is behaviorist, meaning that it portrays behavior as caused by the context or environment.
You need not be concerned, behaviorists would argue, with internal cognitive events (such as the psychological aspects of autonomy, regulatory focus, or job engagement or the process-based theories to come).
Instead, what controls behavior are reinforcers—any consequences that, when they immediately follow responses, increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated.
Reinforcement theory ignores the inner state of the individual and concentrates solely on what happens when the individual acts
operant conditioning
suggests that people learn to behave in a certain way to either get something they want or avoid something they do not want.
Reinforcement strengthens a behavior and increases the likelihood it will be repeated. Operant conditioning was part of B. F. Skinner’s broader concept of behaviorism which argues that behavior follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner.
(context-based theory of motivation) (on exam) social learning theory
Social learning theory, like reinforcement theory, assumes behavior is a function of consequences—but it also clarifies the effects of observation and perception in motivation.
People respond to the way they perceive and define consequences, not to the objective consequences themselves
(process-based theory of motivation) (on exam) expectancy theory and its three relationships
victor vroom’s Expectancy theory argues that the strength of our tendency to act a certain way depends on the strength of our expectation of a given outcome and its attractiveness.
Several factors play into decisions to put forth effort, and expectancy theory suggests that these may be in part explained by valence, instrumentality, and expectancy:
Expectancy: the effort–performance relationship. The degree to which the individual believes exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.
Instrumentality: the performance–reward relationship. The degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
Valence: the rewards–personal goals relationship. The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual
(process-based theory of motivation) (on exam) goal setting theory
goal-setting theory, proposed by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, reveals the impressive effects of goals on performance.
Under this theory, intentions to work toward a goal are considered a major source of work motivation.
How do goals affect performance? According to the theory and decades of evidence supporting it, goals do four things:
1) They direct attention
(2) they mobilize effort
(3) they encourage persistence
(4) they facilitate the development of strategy.
Goal-setting theory is well supported. Evidence strongly suggests that specific goals increase performance and that difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher performance than do easy goals. Why? First, goals that are specific explicitly direct attention toward what needs to be accomplished.
(process-based theory of motivation) (on exam) goal setting theory and what can hurt goal-setting
(1) goal commitment, (2) task characteristics, (3) feedback, (4) goal orientation, and (5) goal conflict
Goal-setting theory assumes an individual is committed to the goal and determined not to lower or abandon it.
- Goal commitment does not happen in a vacuum, however. For instance, we often subconsciously mimic others, which can affect our goal commitment
- Task characteristics “Goals seem to affect performance more strongly when tasks are simple rather than complex”
- Feedback, in general, leads to higher performance.9
- goal orientation suggests that people systematically differ in the extent they are motivated to prove themselves through good performance (i.e., performance-prove) and avoiding poor performance (i.e., performance-avoid) and the extent to which they are motivated to master the task
- goal conflict - We often find ourselves confronted with goals that compete with one another.
management by objectives (mbo)
MBO emphasizes participatively set goals that are tangible, verifiable, and measurable.
Four ingredients are common to MBO programs: goal specificity, participation in decision making (including the setting of goals or objectives), an explicit time period, and performance feedback.
(process-based theory of motivation) (on exam) self-efficacy theory and four ways to increase self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief of being capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed.
Research also suggests that there are four ways of increasing self-efficacy:
(1) Give employees relevant experiences with the task (i.e., enactive mastery),
(2) enable them to watch someone else do the task (i.e., vicarious modeling),
(3) reassure the employees, letting them know that they have “what it takes” to do the task (i.e., verbal persuasion), and (
4) tell them to “get psyched up” (i.e., arousal)—getting energized will enable the employees to approach the task more positively”
the pygmalion effect
One of the best ways for a manager to use verbal persuasion is through the Pygmalion effect, a term based on a Greek myth about a sculptor (Pygmalion) who fell in love with a statue he carved.
The Pygmalion effect is a form of self-fulfilling prophecy in which believing something can make it true. Here, it is often used to describe “that what one person expects of another can come to serve a self-fulfilling prophecy.”
For example, if we identify those in the office with the highest leadership potential, we may treat them in such a way where they eventually become a leader.”
(organizational justice) equity theory
employees compare what they get from their job (their “outcomes,” such as pay, promotions, recognition, or a bigger office) to what they put into it (their “inputs,” such as effort, experience, and education) and then respond to eliminate any inequalities.
based on equity theory, employees who perceive inequality who perceive inequality will make one of six choices
Change inputs (exert less effort if underpaid or more if overpaid).
Change outcomes (individuals paid on a piece-rate basis can increase their pay by producing a higher quantity of units of lower quality).
Distort perceptions of self (“I used to think I worked at a moderate pace, but now I realize I work a lot harder than everyone else”).
Distort perceptions of others (“Aisha’s job isn’t as desirable as I thought”).
Choose a different referent (“I may not make as much as my sibling, but I am doing a lot better than they did at my age”).
Leave the field (quit the job).
organizational justice (on exam)
organizational justice - fairness in the workplace and overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.
distributive justice (on exam)
Distributive justice: perceived fairness of outcome “such as pay and recognition, that employees receive.”
procedural justice (on exam)
Procedural justice: perceived fairness of process used to determine outcome
interactional justice (on exam)
Interactional justice: sensitivity to the quality of interpersonal treatment
informational justice (on exam)
Informational justice: the degree to which employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions. “which reflects whether managers provide employees with explanations for key decisions and keep them informed of important organizational matters.”
interpersonal justice (on exam)
Interpersonal justice: “ which reflects whether employees are treated with dignity and respect. “
name all the context-based theory of motivation and describe them !!!!!!!
CRS
- reinforcement theory
argues that reinforcement conditions behavior.
Reinforcement theory is behaviorist, meaning that it portrays behavior as caused by the context or environment.
You need not be concerned, behaviorists would argue, with internal cognitive events (such as the psychological aspects of autonomy, regulatory focus, or job engagement or the process-based theories to come).
operant conditioning is under this - social learning theory
Social learning theory, like reinforcement theory, assumes behavior is a function of consequences—but it also clarifies the effects of observation and perception in motivation.
People respond to the way they perceive and define consequences, not to the objective consequences themselves
name all the process-based theory of motivation and describe them !!!!!!!
PEGS
- expectancy theory (3)
victor vroom’s Expectancy theory argues that the strength of our tendency to act a certain way depends on the strength of our expectation of a given outcome and its attractiveness.
- Expectancy: the effort–performance relationship. The degree to which the individual believes exerting a given amount of effort will lead to performance.
- Instrumentality: the performance–reward relationship. The degree to which the individual believes performing at a particular level will lead to the attainment of a desired outcome.
- Valence: the rewards–personal goals relationship. The degree to which organizational rewards satisfy an individual’s personal goals or needs and the attractiveness of those potential rewards for the individual - goal setting theory
goal-setting theory, proposed by Edwin Locke and Gary Latham, reveals the impressive effects of goals on performance.
Under this theory, intentions to work toward a goal are considered a major source of work motivation.
1) They direct attention
(2) they mobilize effort
(3) they encourage persistence
(4) they facilitate the development of strategy. - self-efficacy
Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief of being capable of performing a task. The higher your self-efficacy, the more confidence you have in your ability to succeed.
Research also suggests that there are four ways of increasing self-efficacy:
(1) Give employees relevant experiences with the task (i.e., enactive mastery),
(2) enable them to watch someone else do the task (i.e., vicarious modeling),
(3) reassure the employees, letting them know that they have “what it takes” to do the task (i.e., verbal persuasion),
4) tell them to “get psyched up” (i.e., arousal)—getting energized will enable the employees to approach the task more positively”
pygmalion effect is under this
name all the CONTENT-based theory of motivation and describe them !!!!!!!
- self-determination theory (SDT)
proposes that employees’ well-being and performance are influenced by the nature of their motivation for certain job activities.
- For instance, a sense of choice over what they do, how motivating the task is in and of itself, how rewards influence motivation, and how work satisfies psychological needs are all fundamental components of SDT.
- Another aspect of self-determination theory is self-concordance theory, which considers how strongly people’s reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interests and core values.
- cognitive evaluation theory (CET)
a sub-theory that suggests that extrinsic rewards (e.g., pay) reduce people’s intrinsic interest in a task.
When people are paid for work, it feels less like something they want to do and more like something they must do
- need for autonomy (that corresponds with the need to feel in control) and need for competence (the need to feel like we are good at what we do and proud of it) - regulatory focus theory - “Generally, people fall into one of two categories, or regulatory foci, though they could belong to both.”
Those with a promotion focus strive for advancement and accomplishment and approach conditions that move them closer toward desired goals.
Those with a prevention focus strive to fulfill duties and obligations and avoid conditions that pull them away from desired goals. - job engagement theory
“job engagement, the investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance.52 Many also portray job/work engagement as a motivational state characterized by vigorous completion of the work, dedication to the task, and complete absorption in what one is doing,”
“employee engagement was a term introduced in the chapter on job attitudes. Why are we introducing it again here? OB scholars actually view engagement in two different ways: job attitude and motivational state
