Chapter 9 Cognition and Perception Flashcards
What is the difference between analytic and holistic reasoning?
Analytic thinking involves
Separating objects from each other 分离物体
Breaking down objects to their component parts将物体分解为各个组成部分
Using rules to explain and predict an object’s behavior使用规则来解释和预测物体的行为
Relies on abstract thought.依赖抽象思维
Holistic thinking involves:
An orientation to the entire scene对整个场景的定位
Attending to the relations among objects关注物体之间的关系
predicting an object’s behavior on the basis of those relationships
根据这些关系预测物体的行为
relies on associative thought.依靠联想思维
what things are associated and connected to each other
What does research find about these two very fundamental ways of thinking differ across cultures?
The way people understand the physical world is based on how they understand the social world.人们理解物理世界的方式基于他们理解社会世界的方式
generalize their thinking from the social world we live in
In independent cultures, people learn to think of others as being fundamentally independent from each other, and composed of their component parts. 在独立的文化中，人们学会从根本上认为他人彼此独立，并由其组成部分组成
Likewise, the physical world can be understood the same way.
同样，对物理世界的理解也是如此
Likewise, people who are socialized in an interdependent context come to learn to attend to relations among people. 同样，在相互依存的环境中接受社会化教育的人也会学会关注人与人之间的关系
This is generalized to an attention of relations among objects in one’s environment.
这可以推广到关注环境中物体之间的关系
Research by Richard Nisbett and his former students provides much evidence for this fundamental cultural difference. 研究为这一根本的文化差异提供了大量证据
What is the concept of field dependence/independence about?
Holistic thinkers perceive a scene as an integrated whole. It is difficult for them to separate objects from each other - field dependence. 整体思维者将场景视为一个整体。他们很难将物体彼此分开，这就是场依赖性
Being able to separate objects from each other is termed field independence. 能够将物体相互分离则称为场独立性
Field independence can be tested with a Rod and Frame task, where a rod is inside of a frame and they are both rotated 可以通过 “杆和框架 “任务来测试
ask you is the rod pointing straight or not
How does changing the background of the scene impact participants’ recognition?
Participants are first asked to describe the original picture while they are looking at them.
When Westerners describe such scenes, they typically begin by describing the focal animal (e.g., a wolf).
East Asians, in contrast, more often describe the scene by starting off with the context (e.g., a snowy forest scene).
Later, participants are shown other photos, some of which they’ve seen before, and some which include the original animal with a different background. They are then asked whether they have seen the animal in the picture before.
Westerners’ performance is relatively unaffected by the background of the scene. (都能记得自己看过这个动物）
East Asians’ performance is worse if the background of the scene is switched on them. （背景改变了，东亚人记忆就没那么好）
East Asians appear to see the scene as bound together in an irreducible whole. Westerners see it as a collection of parts.
How are people’s judgment of people’s facial expressions influenced/changed?
图片是一张小男孩站在中间笑着，旁边的人都比较生气的样子，考察participant怎么样解读这个小男孩的feeling，happy还是embarrassed
East Asians’ judgments of the centre target’s facial expression are more influenced by the expressions of the surrounding others.
Judging emotional expressions is more of a social event for East Asians.
How is it that East Asians are influenced more by the background of scenes?
To address this the researchers had participants wear an eye monitor and tracked their gaze.
In the first second, people from both cultures largely look at the target. After that, East Asians look more to the background than do Westerners, who continue to fixate on the focal target.
This cultural pattern also occurs for nonsocial scenes (wolf and tree). East Asians appear to more habitually look for relations in their environments
westerners focus on the focal
East asian’s gaze sees the world as a whole
How are perceptual styles and art different in Western and Eastern Asian cultures?
Westerner: 1) things get smaller as further, scene is representing how things is further to artists 2) low horizon
East Asian:1) things are not getting smaller as further, preserving the relative size and distance between object. 2) The horizon is above the scene birds eye view). Capturing how things all are relative to others.
Comparisons of Paintings in Museums:
- horizon always higher in east asian painting
- the background is always larger in east asian painting
Comparison of Student Drawings (are not artists):
- 一样的结果 horizon is much higher, relative size perserved
Comparison of Photos:
- 拍模特zoom in多少
东亚人拍的更多背景
Information in Web Pages:
North American webpages have fewer links and words than comparable East Asian ones 北美网页的链接和字数都少于东亚网页
A similar cultural difference in density of information was seen in a comparison of scientific conference posters. 在科学会议海报的比较中，也发现了类似的信息密度文化差异
Moreover, when given the challenge to find a particular image, East Asians perform better than North Americans in busier scenes 此外，当面临寻找特定图片的挑战时，东亚人在更繁忙的场景中比北美人表现得更好
process 背景很多东西的task中表现的更好
How do people understand other people’s behaviours? (two different types of attribution)
Analytic thinkers focusing on objects’ component parts, whereas holistic thinkers consider objects’ relations with the context. 分析型思想家关注对象的组成部分，而整体型思想家则考虑对象与环境的关系
The same distinction can be applied to how we understand people.同样的区别也适用于我们如何理解人
Explaining people’s behaviors by attending to their personal characteristics is known as a dispositional attribution. 通过关注人的个人特征来解释人的行为被称为性格归因。
一个人生气是因为性格不好，isolate their personality from the environment and context
Explaining people’s behaviors by attending to contextual variables is known as a situational attribution.通过关注环境变量来解释人的行为则被称为情境归因
一个人生气是因为他所处在的环境差
What does research show about cultural differences in attribution?
Research with Westerners consistently finds that they attend more to dispositional information than situational information when explaining others, even when the situational constraints on people’s behaviors are obvious.即使人们行为的情境限制是显而易见的
In one classic study, American students were asked to evaluate an essay writer’s true attitudes by reading an essay that they had written which espoused either positive or critical attitudes towards Fidel Castro ，
IV: 评价文章作者的真实态度 (true attitude toward Castro)
Participants assumed that the writer of the pro-Castro essay had more positive feelings towards Castro than the writer of the anti-Castro essay. 参与者假设支持卡斯特罗的文章作者比反对卡斯特罗的文章作者对卡斯特罗有更多的好感
In one condition, participants were told that the authors had been assigned their positions (i.e., either pro-Castro or anti-Castro).
“author was assigned to write a pro or against”
In other conditions, participants were told of some significant situational constraints on the essay-writers behaviors. 在其他条件下，参与者被告知文章作者的行为会受到一些重要的情境限制
In another condition, participants watched as another subject was asked to read a pre-written essay (either pro-Castro or anti-Castro).在另一种情况下，受试者观看另一名受试者阅读事先写好的文章（支持或反对卡斯特罗)
read out loud
Regardless, participants assumed that the person reading the anti-Castro essay had more negative feelings towards Castro than the person reading the pro-Castro essay. 无论如何，美国人都会认为阅读反卡斯特罗文章的人比阅读支持卡斯特罗文章的人对卡斯特罗有更多的负面情绪
This is termed the “fundamental attribution error.”
这被称为 “基本归因错误”， 认为这就是他们的true view
Describe another study comparing the Indians and Americans on the types of attribution.
Cross culture Study
One study explored people’s attributions in India and the US.
一项研究对印度和美国人的归因进行了探讨
Participants, who ranged in age from 8 year-olds to adults, read a number of scenarios where a target person did something, and then offered explanations for the target person’s behaviors.参与者的年龄从 8 岁到成年不等，他们阅读了一些目标人物做了某事的情景，然后对目标人物的行为做出了解释
Their explanations were coded for being either dispositional or situational
Situational: friend does not looks like he’s that bad, the driver has more things to do
Dispositional: friend is bad
American and Indian 8 year-olds gave similar attributions.美国和印度 8 岁儿童的归因相似
As Americans got older, they made more dispositional attributions, but not situational ones. American adults show the fundamental attribution error. 随着年龄的增长，美国人做出了更多的处置性归因，但没有做出情景性归因。 美国成年人表现出基本的归因错误
*Older Indians made more situational attributions but not dispositional ones. Indian adults show a reverse fundamental attribution error. 年长的印度人做出了更多的情境归因，但没有做出性格归因
consistent finding: non-western attend to disposition less
Where do Reasoning Differences Come From?
Nisbett (2003) argued that these reasoning differences reflect habits of thought dating back to classical Greek and Confucian Chinese thought. 这些推理差异反映了可追溯到古典希腊和中国儒家思想的思维习惯
Analytic thought is evident in Aristotle’s view that objects possess properties such as “gravity,” and the Platonic view that the world consists of discrete unchanging objects operating by universal laws. 亚里士多德认为物体具有 “万有引力 “等属性，柏拉图则认为世界由离散不变的物体组成，并按照普遍规律运行，这些都体现了分析性思维
Holistic thought is evident in classical Chinese ideas of harmony, interconnectedness, and change, e.g., early Chinese discoveries of action at a distance and in Chinese medical traditions. 整体思想则体现在中国古典的和谐、相互联系和变化的思想中，例如中国早期对远距离作用的发现以及中国的医学传统
人体穴位都是连接着的
However, more recent research finds evidence for holistic thinking pretty mueverywhere outside of the Western world. 然而，最近的研究发现，在西方世界之外的许多地方都有整体思维的证据
What does Chinese and Western culture suggest about tolerance for contradiction?
Chinese show a relative acceptance for contradiction, which has been termed “naive dialecticism”中国人相对接受矛盾，被称为 “天真的辩证法”
Based on a view that everything is connected and is constantly in flux. Symbolized by the yin and the yang - the universe moves back and forth between opposite poles 基于万物相互联系、不断变化的观点。 以阴阳为象征–宇宙在相反的两极之间来回运动
“Belief A” is connected to and is always changing into its opposite, “Belief Not A.” Hence, there can be no real logical contradiction “信念 A “与它的对立面 “非信念 A “相联系，并一直在变化。因此，不存在真正的逻辑矛盾
In contrast, Aristotle proposed a different system for dealing with contradiction.
He offered 3 principles.
Law of Identity: A = A
Law of Excluded Middle: A = B, or A = Not B, these are the only two possibilities
Law of Noncontradiction: A =/ Not A.
According to this perspective, there cannot be any contradiction.
What does the cross cultural experiment on contradictory arguments about nicotine suggest?
Consider the following two arguments:
1. A sociologist who surveyed college students from 100 universities claimed that there is a high correlation among college female students between smoking and being skinny.一位对 100 所大学的大学生进行调查的社会学家声称，在女大学生中，吸烟与瘦弱之间存在高度相关性
2. A biologist who studied nicotine addiction asserted that heavy doses of nicotine often lead to becoming overweight. 一位研究尼古丁成瘾的生物学家断言，大量摄入尼古丁往往会导致超重
A number of contradictory pairs of arguments were created, and American and Chinese participants received either just one argument from the pair, or they received both arguments. 我们创建了若干对相互矛盾的论据，美国和中国的参与者要么只收到其中的一个论据，要么同时收到两个论据
DV: They were asked to evaluate how plausible they found the argument(s).
他们被要求评价他们认为这些论据的可信度
American participants tended to view A to be more plausible than B when saw only one argument
When saw counteractive, they become more confident in A，有对比下更自信了
Americans who received both arguments showed a normative reasoning style in that they were more convinced that the stronger argument was correct when they also heard of a contradictory argument than if they had only heard the strong argument by itself.
Chinese participants 看到一个的时候A更plausible，但是看到两个矛盾的statement的时候的时候，他们就开始认为A不可信，但是B变得更可信
相反，中国人认为，如果他们听到了一个矛盾的论点，那么这个强论点就不那么可信了
However, they showed a counternormative response in viewing a weak argument as being more plausible if it was paired with a contradictory argument.不过，他们表现出一种反规范的反应，即如果一个薄弱的论据与一个矛盾的论据搭配在一起，就会显得更加可信
How are these attitudes toward contradiction evident in attitudes toward the self?
East Asians are more likely than Westerners to offer apparently contradictory self-descriptions, saying, for example, that they are both shy and outgoing 东亚人比西方人更容易提供明显矛盾的自我描述，例如，他们既害羞又外向
There are also cultural differences in people’s predictions about the future.
人们对未来的预测也存在文化差异
Westerners are more likely to view the future as unfolding in a linear way from the past. East Asians, in contrast, view change to be more cyclical, where good times might be followed by bad. -西方人更倾向于认为未来是以线性方式从过去展开的。 与此相反，东亚人认为变化更具有周期性，好景不长
What is the relation between talking and our private thoughts? Are our thoughts a silent monologue, involving processes the same as speech?
Talking is an analytic process. We can only specify one idea at a time that is arranged in a sequence. It is difficult to discuss holistic ideas in which there are multiple connections that are simultaneously relevant. 要讨论同时存在多种关联的整体观点是很困难的
Holistic thinking should be impaired more by saying one’s thoughts out loud than would analytic thinking. 与分析性思维相比，大声说出自己的想法对逻辑性思维的影响更大
One example of this can be seen in facial recognition.-面部识别就是一个例子
facial recognition is holistic
Studies find that when people verbally describe a face that this later impairs their recognition of the face, apparently because one’s verbal descriptions do not capture the whole of the face 当人们口头描述一张面孔时，随后会影响他们对这张面孔的识别，这显然是因为人们的口头描述无法捕捉到这张面孔的全貌
Westerners appear to value the spoken word more than East Asians. 西方人似乎比东亚人更重视口头语言
In Judeo-Christian beliefs the “Word” is sacred. 在犹太教-基督教信仰中，”话语 “是神圣的
The ancient Greeks viewed knowledge to emerge through the spoken word.古希腊人认为知识是通过口头语言产生的
The First Amendment to the US constitution is to protect one’s freedom of speech.美国宪法第一修正案就是为了保护人们的言论自由
Lao Tzu said that “He who knows does not speak. He who speaks does not know.”
老子说：”知者不言，言者不知。”
Various Eastern religions also emphasize silent meditation rather than prayer.各种东方宗教也强调静默冥想而非祈祷
A Korean proverb states that “An empty cart makes more noise.”韩国有句谚语说：”空车多响”
How has the relationship between thinking and talking been explored by a Korean student?
The relation between thinking and talking has been explored by Heejung Kim, who noticed, as a Korean grad student in the US, that there was an unfamiliar emphasis on discussing your ideas 作为一名在美国学习的韩国研究生，ta注意到，美国对讨论自己的想法的强调并不常见
She wanted to investigate whether the quality of people’s thinking is affected by saying one’s thoughts out loud. 她想研究大声说出自己的想法是否会影响人们的思维质量
She had participants attempt some items from the Raven’s Matrices IQ test under different conditions. 她让参与者在不同条件下尝试瑞文矩阵智商测试中的一些项目
The participants were all Euro-American and Asian-American students (all of whom were born in the US) were assigned to one of two conditions: 参与者都是欧美裔和亚裔学生（都在美国出生），他们被分配到两个条件中的一个：
In a Thinking Aloud Condition participants first completed 10 IQ items silently, and then they completed another 10 IQ items while saying their thoughts out loud.在 “大声思考 “条件下，受试者首先默写完成 10 个智商项目，然后在大声说出自己的想法的同时完成另外 10 个智商项目
In an Articulatory Suppression Condition participants first completed 10 IQ items silently, and then they completed another 10 IQ items while saying the alphabet out loud.在发音抑制条件下，受试者首先默写 10 个智商项目，然后在大声说出字母表的同时完成另外 10 个智商项目。
The dependent variable was how many IQ items they answered correctly when they were thinking aloud or saying the alphabet compared to when they were answering the items silently.因变量是当他们大声思考或说出字母表时，与他们默不作声时相比，他们正确回答了多少个智商项目
How did Euro-Americans vs. Asian-Americans do on the Raven’s Matrices?
When Euro-Americans are thinking aloud their performance is relatively unaffected.
In contrast, Asian-Americans perform significantly worse when they are thinking aloud compared with when they are silent.
Conversely, Euro-Americans perform worse when they are saying the alphabet.
Asian-Americans are relatively unaffected by saying the alphabet.
Asian: non-verbal tasks, thinking outlook is harder for them
also do worse in public speaking performance
putting thoughts into words is not easy
European: verbal think same
Does language influence thought?
A strong version of the Whorfian hypothesis is that language determines thought.
Without access to the right words people are unable to have certain kinds of thoughts.
The strong version of this hypothesis has been largely rejected.
no, because young infant can have complex thought
A weaker version of the hypothesis is that language influences thought. Having access to certain words influences the kinds of thoughts that one has. 该假设的一个较弱版本是语言影响思想。 掌握某些词汇会影响一个人的思想类型
There is a lively controversy regarding the weaker version of the hypothesis.
关于该假说的较弱版本，存在着激烈的争议
This is highly relevant to cross-cultural research as one way that cultures differ is in their languages and the words that are available to them. 这与跨文化研究高度相关，因为文化差异之一就在于其语言和可用词汇
How is language and color perception related?
Although color exists along a continuum, color terms are discrete.
Color terms vary dramatically around the world, although there are only a limited number of patterns of color terms in all languages.
Whorfian question, if people don’t have a word for green do they still see green the same way?这就引出了一个沃尔夫式的问题：如果人们没有 “绿色 “这个词，他们还会以同样的方式看待 “绿色 “吗？
Earlier research was conducted with the Dugum Dani who only have 2 color terms (e.g., Rosch Heider, 1972). 早期的研究是针对只有两个颜色词的杜古姆达尼人进行的
The studies showed that the Dani could better learn new color terms that were closer to the prototypes of English color labels, than they could learn new color terms that were further from the English prototypes. This research was enormously influential in arguing that language is independent of thought.
learn the usual version better
What is another study on language and color perception?
Participants were shown triads of color chips and were asked to identify which two chips were more similar (Roberson et al., 2000, 2005).
The chips were equidistant in terms of hue, however, two of the chips crossed a boundary between two different color terms.
People’s judgments for colors were compared when the two chips crossed a color boundary in their own language, or in another culture’s language.
你认为chip 1和target更像是因为这俩英语都叫green，而实际上是一样distance，证明语言influence thought
People make more judgments based on whether the color of the chips crossed the boundaries of the color terms in their own language than in the other languages.
How about language and egocentric spatial terms?
Another way that languages vary is that some have egocentric spatial terms, such as right, left, in front of.
Many languages lack terms for these. People describe location in terms of cardinal directions (e.g., north, east,…).
他们就用东南西北去说左右
What will people do when asked to recreate a scene when they change the direction that they are facing? 当人们被要求重现一个场景时，如果他们改变了面对的方向，他们会怎么做？
In one study, Dutch speaking and Guugu Ymithirr speaking participants were shown some objects. They then went to a different room and were asked to recreate the scene. 在一项研究中，研究人员向讲荷兰语和 Guugu Ymithirr 语的参与者展示了一些物品。 然后，他们来到另一个房间，被要求再现场景
In one condition they faced the same cardinal direction in the second room.
在一种情况下，他们在第二个房间里面对的是同一个方向
In the other condition they faced a different direction in the second room. The DV was how they arranged the objects in the second room 在另一种情况下，他们在第二个房间里面对不同的方向。 DV 是他们在第二个房间里如何摆放物品
GY speaker are arranging accordiing to the cardinal direction
recall, talk about, and code space differently
How do most people represent space?
Representing space in absolute terms is common among most subsistence societies in the world.
This is common even among people who are bilingual and have learned egocentric direction terms in one of their languages - apparently, they prefer to represent space in absolute ways.
Chimpanzees also don’t represent space in egocentric ways.
Egocentric space representation appears to be a relatively recent development in human history.
What is numerical cognition? How do people learn how to count?
Much of numeric cognition is a cultural invention - people have few innate math abilities - they mostly emerge with cultural learning.数字认知在很大程度上是一种文化发明–人们几乎没有与生俱来的数学能力–它们大多是通过文化学习产生的
Young children are able to represent numbers up to 3, and after that, they require cultural learning to represent larger numbers. 幼儿能够表示 3 以内的数字 (innate)，之后，他们需要通过文化学习才能表示更大的数字
Some cultures do not have number terms beyond “two.” The Piraha from the Amazon have terms that correspond to 1, 2, and many. 有些文化中没有 “2 “以外的数字术语。 亚马逊河流域的皮拉哈人就有 1、2 和许多的数字
What happens when the Piraha are asked to do simple tasks that require counting to numbers beyond 3? 如果要求皮拉哈人完成一些简单的任务，要求他们数出 3 以上的数字，他们会怎么做呢？
The Piraha were asked to do a series of matching tasks, such as to guess whether there were any nuts remaining in a can after watching some be taken out, trying to copy some matching lines, or trying to match a series of knocks. 皮拉哈人被要求完成一系列配对任务，如在看到罐子里的坚果被取出后猜测罐子里是否还有剩余的坚果，尝试复制一些配对线条，或尝试配对一系列敲击声
In general, they had an approximate understanding of magnitude, such that they matched larger quantities with increasingly large quantities, however, they were only accurate up to small numbers, such as to 3 or 4. 一般来说，他们对大小有大致的了解，因此他们能把较大的数量与越来越大的数量进行配对，但他们只能精确到小数，如 3 或 4
照着线条画线条
The larger the number they were asked to represent, the larger was their error, however, they did show a general sense of approximate quantities.要求他们表示的数字越大，他们的误差就越大，不过，他们确实表现出了对近似量的一般感知
他们可以compare 1-2，但是数字越大就不会了
They often would use their fingers to aid their performance, however, this was highly inaccurate, even for numbers smaller than five. 他们经常用手指来帮助自己完成任务，但这非常不准确，即使是小于 5 的数字也是如此。
There is still much debate whether these indigenous tribes cannot represent numbers because they don’t have the number terms (a Whorfian argument) or because they lack the cultural learning. 这些土著部落之所以不能表示数字，是因为他们没有数字术语（沃尔夫的一种说法），还是因为他们缺乏文化学习，对此仍有很多争论
trained about the quantity
Describe more study results on math and numbers
Subsequent studies reveal that very young children, as well as those from other tribes without number words (e.g., the Mundurucu from the Amazon) represent numbers logarithmically 随后的研究表明，非常年幼的儿童以及来自其他没有数词的部落的儿童（如亚马逊河流域的蒙杜鲁库人）会用对数表示数字
default is logarism rather than linear
Mundurucu participants were shown on a laptop a line between the values of one and 10 dots. They were then shown a set of dots and were asked to indicate the position on a line. Mundurucu 参与者在笔记本电脑上看到一条介于 1 点和 10 点之间的线。 然后向他们展示一组圆点，并要求他们指出圆点在直线上的位置
Participants placed the line at positions that roughly corresponded to the logarithmic value of the number. For example, they rate the middle of the scale to be about a 3 rather than a 5.参与者把线放在与数字的对数值大致对应的位置。 例如，他们将刻度的中间位置定为 3，而不是 5
Young children do the same. This suggests that people’s innate number sense may be logarithmic, and they learn linear numbers greater than 3 through cultural learning.幼儿也是如此。这表明，人们与生俱来的数字感可能是对数的，他们通过文化学习来学习大于 3 的线性数字
Much of what we understand about numbers only occurs as the result of cultural learning.我们对数字的许多理解都是文化学习的结果
Differentiate between taxonomic categorization and thematic categorization. Think of it in the context of answering: which of these three is least like the other two: a dog, a carrot, and a rabbit?
Taxonomic categorization: the clustering of items according to their perceived similarities
- Westerners would say carrot because dog and rabbit share common attributes that differ from the features of the carrot
Thematic categorization: the grouping of items based on their causal, temporal, or spatial associations
- East Asians would say dog because rabbits and carrots have a relationship which dogs don’t share
What is analytic thinking? Which culture is it associated with?
characterized by a focus on objects and their attributes
Objects are perceived as existing independently from their contexts, and they are understood in terms of their component parts
Individualism → more socialized as independent → more independent view of self → analytic thinking
分析思维训练可以使人们在某些情况下变得更加政治自由
古希腊离散概念和抽象原理
Holistic thinking 在世界范围内普遍存在，analytic thinking 而是相对不寻常的推理方式
工人比中产更加holistic in thinking
What is holistic thinking? Which culture is it associated with?
- characterized by a focus on the context as a whole
- It is an associative way of thinking or paying attention to the relationships among objects, as well as between the objects and their surroundings.
- emphasizes knowledge gained through experience rather than the application of fixed abstract concepts
Collectivism → more socialized in interpersonal relationship → more interdependent view of self → holistic thinking
Confucianism → 中国人倾向于将世界视为由不断相互作用的物质组成
整体思维在中国医学传统和强调人与自然和谐的文化中也很明显
What is attention? How do East Asians and Westerners differ in showing different patterns of attention to stimuli?
Attention is the act or state of applying the mind to something or directing cognitive activity a certain way.
- analytical thinker focus on different part of a scene
- holistic thinker see world as a whole, attention covering whole scene
Rorschach inkblots
a psychological measure in which people report what they perceive in an ambiguous visual stimulus
欧洲美国人倾向于根据图像的一个方面来描述他们所看到的东西，比如底部的一个小斑点，看起来像一辆法拉利
华裔美国人更倾向于用整个图像来描述他们看到的内容
在配对图片之间的关系时，中国学生会比美国学生做的更好因为他们具有更多holistic thinking
How is the rod and frame task related to the concept of field dependence/independence?
有误导背景信息所以对holistic thinking较难
Field independence
the tendency to separate objects from their background fields
Field dependence
the tendency to view objects as bound to their backgrounds
Social Orientation Difference
extraverted people are more field-dependent than introverted people
农民比牧民more field dependence
工业化社会的人们往往是相当场独立的，除了生活在高度工业化东亚的人们
What are some research findings on how East Asians are demonstrating the characteristic of field dependence?
Experiment 1
Method
美国和日本的参与者观看了水下场景的动画计算机图像，其中有游动的鱼、挥舞的海藻和漂浮的气泡
Result
In this study, though American
participants recognized fish they had seen about equally well, regardless of the background in the images,
Japanese recognized the fish with the original background much better than the fish with a novel background.
日本参与者对背景元素的提及比美国人多约 60%，美国人更多地谈论了图像中心的鱼
在更换背景但不更换鱼但情况下，参与者被问及他们以前是否见过图片中的鱼
美国人认为这些鱼是一样但
日本人会在背景一样的情况更有可能认出这些鱼是一样的
Neuroscience Experiments
fMRI measurement
单个物体（例如单独的大象）、空背景场景（例如没有动物的大草原）或嵌入场景（例如大草原上的大象）
Result
与东亚人相比，美国人表现出更多的物体处理大脑区域的激活 (object-processing brain region)
在与处理环境和背景相关的领域没有发现文化差异
Saw more difference as people get older (老人和老人对比差距更大）
是否人们理解世界不同–> 不同视觉信息
Eye tracking experiment
在前 1,000 毫秒内，几乎没有文化差异 → 美国人和日本人花90%以上的时间看中心人物
在接下来的两个 1,000 毫秒的间隔中
美国人仍然将 90% 以上的注意力集中在中心人物上
而日本人则投入了 70-80%
Saccades
the shifting of the gaze from one fixation point to another （扫视）
East Asian have more rapid eye movement than American → better at detecting changes
当西方人开始dependently思考，他们也变得更加关注背景
Are there cultural differences in attention and artistic preferences?
Painting
East Asian
地平线更高(East Asian)，objects sizes are relative to each other.
背景的纵深感就越强，场景中的各种元素和地点也就越清晰。而较低的地平线(Western)则会缩小场景的可视范围
Western
地平线更低，portrait artists tend to paint larger figures than East Asians （去引导观看者的注意在一个object）
东亚人的painting 倾向于有更高的地平线，更复杂的背景，更有可能将物品置于背景
大学生自己的画也是如此
Photography
East Asians include more of the background in the frame and have smaller figures in their portraits than Americans (背景更多，人物更小）
日本摄影作品比美国摄影作品有多边界和边缘以及更复杂多场景
Summary
东亚艺术包含更多的场景，而西方艺术更倾向于将观众的注意力引向前景，
西方艺术更倾向于通过低矮的地平线或巨大的中心人物或主题将观众的注意力引向前景。
Website (ability to collect information)
The East Asian websites were much longer than the North American sites and had many more links and words
East Asian websites were busier, with more information for people to navigate
Conditions
small website → no cultural difference in the time it took participants to find the images.
large website → the East Asian students were faster than the European Canadians at finding the hidden images
频繁接触复杂的环境让东亚人更好的应对复杂环境
How do people differ in the ways they understand other people’s behaviours?
Dispositional attributions
explaining behavior in terms of a person’s underlying qualities
Situational attributions
explaining behavior in terms of contextual factors.
THE FUNDAMENTAL ATTRIBUTION ERROR
When we see people acting, we assume they are doing so because of their underlying dispositions, and we tend to ignore the situational factors that might be governing their behavior.（忽略situation: 也就是被迫写作的的论文condition）and 关注disposition：也就是writer的assumed attitude)
美国人更容易interpret behavior as one’s interlying trait
Experiment 1 (motorcycle accident) 8,11, 15, and 大学生 participants
the 8-year-olds from both cultures gave quite similar responses
American sample → more dispositional attributions and same situational attributions as age get older
Indian sample → more situational attributions (reverse foundational attribution error) and same dispositional attributions as age get older
美国报纸报道谋杀事件时更多描述性格 （坏脾气），而中国报纸更多描述情况 (被解雇）
Religion difference
American Protestants (having a greater commitment to the idea that individuals have a soul) are more likely than American Catholics to make dispositional attributions
SES difference
Working-class Americans make more situational attributions, and fewer dispositional attributions, than middle-class Americans
What are the abstract theories of contradictions?
T’ai chi symbol
consist of Ying and Yang（fluid)
Lao Tzu (Taoism)
To take something, you need to give it first
Highlights that reality is in flux but also indicates that opposing truths can be simultaneously accepted.
Law of non-contradiction
Aristotle
No statement could be both true and false, and thus “A” could not equal “not A.”
Principle of contradiction
因为一切都被认为从根本上与其他一切联系在一起并且不断变化，所以真正的矛盾不存在 （中国的易经）
Naive dialecticism朴素辩证法： the acceptance of contradiction
With this orientation toward the world, contradiction is not something to be rejected but should be accepted
What are some research findings on how people respond to contradictions?
Experiment 1 (reason about the external world)
Condition
只收到一个论点
收到两个对立的论点
Result
American
Only one argument
单独看到论点A → 认为A有说服力
单独看到论点B → 认为B没那么有说服力
Both argument
看过论点A的美国人在遇到对立的论点B时会认为论点A更加合理
对于先看到论点B的人没有影响
Chinese
Only one argument
单独看到论点A → 认为A有说服力
单独看到论点B → 认为B没那么有说服力
Both argument
先看过论点A的中国人人在遇到对立的论点B时会质疑论点A的合理性
先看过论点B的中国人人在遇到对立的论点A时会更加相信他们原本不那么相信的B论点
原因可能是the Chinese were reacting to the arguments
by noticing the contradiction, which reminded them that the world is often contradictory—so it was hard for them to say which side is right and which is wrong. They accepted the contradiction and didn’t seem motivated to get rid of it.
What are some influences of accepting contradiction on East Asians vs. Westerners?
Influence on self-concept
Chinese were much more likely than Americans to provide statements that were apparent contradictions
例如他们既有高自尊又有低自尊
inconsistency in East Asian’s self-concepts, but no negative effects were found among Japanese
Difference in the ways people think
Westerners appear to see change as occurring in more linear ways.
e.g. 如果一只股票价格在过去一年上涨，那么明年它可能会再次上涨
East Asians appear to believe that change happens in fluid and unpredictable ways.
e.g. 塞翁失马焉知非福
Prediction of future
The Chinese were almost twice as likely as Americans to predict that the trend would reverse direction in the future
拥有更多辩证信念的人(e.g. East Asian)更有可能在经济好的时候将钱存入储蓄，因为他们预计未来的财务状况会出现下滑，而在经济不景气的时候，他们会减少储蓄，预计自己的命运会好转
How is talking related to thinking?
Talking
Talking and language have held a privileged position in much of Western intellectual history
在西方古希腊，苏格拉底认为言语是很重要的
in many East Asian cultures there has traditionally been little emphasis on talking
Differences in early speech habits
日本母亲与年幼的孩子说话的次数少于美国母亲
BUT less talking does not necessarily mean less communication
大声表达自己的想法应该会干扰东亚人在认知任务上的表现，而对西方人的表现影响不大
What is the experiment on European Americans and Asian Americans and their ability to solve Raven’s Matrices in different conditions about?
Experiment (Cognitive ability affect by talking)
Condition 亚裔和欧裔
Pre-test (silent condition)
参与者独自坐在一个房间里，完全不说话就完成了测试
Post-test
被分配到“talking Aloud”条件的参与者在完成后半部分测试时被要求对着电脑麦克风大声说话
被分配到“articulatory suppression”条件被指示在完成项目时对着麦克风大声重复字母表
DV
Talking Aloud 和 silent condition的分数差
articulatory suppression 的分数差
Result
Talking Aloud VS Silent condition （Ravens Test)
欧洲裔美国人在说话时和沉默时的表现大致相同。这表明说话和思考对于欧洲裔美国人来说非常相关
亚裔美国人在谈话时的测试表现却很差。大声表达自己的想法会干扰他们的思考
Articulatory suppression VS Silent condition
欧洲裔美国人在背诵字母表时在智商测试中表现非常差，这表明他们在解决Raven’s Matrices时的思维显然是口头的，并且受到背诵字母表的干扰。
背诵字母表对亚裔美国人的表现影响不大。这表明他们在解决Raven’s Matrices时的想法很大程度上是非语言的想法
Talking Alound
因为说话是一项连续的任务，holistic thinker 可能会发现很难大声表达自己的想法。当你说话时，一个想法就会随之而来，所以你不能同时描述多个事物
Analystic thinkers 专注于不同的部分，因此大声说话更容易。每个部分都可以单独并按顺序进行描述
Articulatory Suppression
因为背诵简单的字母表和思考智商测试对于East Asian 来说是不互相干扰的事情，所以他们所受的影响较小
对于American 来说说话和思考本质上是相关的，所以他们相当同时进行两项口头任务 → 关于如何解决乌鸦项目的未说出口的口头想法，以及他们与字母表相关的口头口头想法。
How does speech interfere with holistic thinking?
Experiment 2 ( speech interferes with holistic thinking)
如果人们之前没有尝试过描述他们以前见过的面孔，他们就能更好地认出他们。
因为他们对于脸部的描述都集中在一些面部特征上而不是整张脸的样子（有好几百张脸都可以对应上这些零散的面部特征），所以他们在看到整张脸时记忆力会变差
How do high-context culture and low-context culture differ in the way people interpret language?
High-context culture （高语境）
People are deeply involved with one another, and they share information that guides their behavior.
Appropriate behavior for every situation is understood, so there’s no need for explicit communication 动作和行为就够了，不需要明确的语言
比如紧张的情绪代表拒绝
more in East Asian Culture
Low-context culture （低语境）
there is less involvement among individuals, and therefore less shared information to guide behavior.
people have to communicate in more explicit detail, as others are less able to fill in the gaps of what is not said. 动作和行为不够，所以需要目前的语言解释
more in Western culture （North America)
Sounding tone Experiment
Method
参与者听到的词语要么是令人愉快的，要么是令人不愉快的，并伴有听起来愉快的语气或不愉快的语气。
对于某些词来说，明确的含义与语气相匹配，而对于某些词来说，含义是与伴音相反
IV
参与者被要求要么忽略这个词的语气并说出这个词的意思是愉快的还是不愉快的
要么忽略这个词的意思并评论这个语气听起来是愉快的还是不愉快的
DV
关键变量是当语气和词义发生冲突时，参与者需要多长时间做出反应
Result
美国人对语气做出判断（同时忽略单词的含义）比对单词的含义（同时忽略语气）做出判断更困难。
日本参与者则表现出相反的结果
Explaination
这表明日本人习惯性地关注说话的语气，而不是说话的确切内容
日语比英语更需要人们听语气 (被研究证明不是正确的explaination)
What is the Whorfian hypothesis of linguistic relativity?
Theory explaining relationship between cognition and language
Strong version
language determines how we think–we are unable to do much thinking on a topic if we don’t have the relevant words available to us.
being univerisally rejected (错误的）
Weak version
the language we speak influences how we think.
It’s not that one language allows people to think about certain ideas, but rather that one language obliges people to think about certain ideas
并不是一种语言允许人们思考某些想法，而是一种语言迫使人们思考某些想法
比如德语中的feminine的词语bridge会使人们想到gender
How does color perception differ by languages/cultures?
people who speak different languages carve up the color spectrum in different ways
colour is linguistically discrete variable, perceptually continuous
BUT the categories are not arbitrary, and there are some strikingly consistent patterns.
Influence on color perception
英语使用者用这个blue来指代天空、蓝莓和南太平洋的颜色
日语中蓝色的单词是ao, 这个词指代天空和草的颜色
Categorical perception of colors
perceiving stimuli as belonging to separate discrete categories, even though the stimuli may gradually differ from each other in along in a continuum
Experiment 1 (English, Berinmo, Himba)
Method
看说不同语言的人能不能区分根据语言的颜色分类而划分的chips
比如英语speaker看到这个图会认为和chip 1更近，因为语言里面都叫绿色，但是实际上色调距离是一样的
Result
English speaker 只能区分English category单词划分的颜色类别，而不能区分Berinmo speaker的颜色类别 （选择1 和2 一样多）
Berinomo speaker 也只能区分自己语言中的颜色类别划分
Explanation
与跨越其他语言的颜色标签边界的刺激相比，人们对跨越自己语言中的两个颜色标签边界的刺激做出更多与分类感知一致的判断
How does odor perception differ by languages/cultures?
European speakers of languages have poor verbal descriptions of odors
Jahai have a much larger vocabulary of olfaction words
Experiment
American
美国人在颜色命名方面做得很好，他们使用的颜色词非常一致
美国人在气味命名方面做得很差，彼此之间的一致性很少
Jahai
贾海人对气味的命名与对颜色的命名一样好
他们在命名颜色方面的一致性比美国人少, 但在命名气味方面比美国人更加一致
In this study, Americans reached more agreement among themselves when describing colors than when describing odors. There was almost no agreement among American participants in how they described odors. In contrast, the Jahai reached about the same amount of agreement when describing colors as when they were describing odors.
How do perceptions of agency differ by languges?
In English, more common to attribute behaviour to someone taking action-an agent
“Justin tore the bodice.” 比 “The bodice tore“ 更加agent
听起来 Justin更具有对于这件错事的责任感
English speaker want to avoid blame 的事，they use passive description.
在西班牙语中被动表达很常见
Whorfian question arises: When English and Spanish speakers observe unintentional actions, which are more commonly described in terms of agency in English than in Spanish, will they recall those events differently?
Experiment
Condition
人intentionally打碎花瓶 （agency in both Spanish and English）
人unintentionally打碎花瓶 （Agency morelikely to be repoted in English than Spanish）
Result
Intentional condition西班牙和英语speaker equally accurat when identifying who had acted (因为语言描述不变）
Unintentional condition: 讲英语的人比讲西班牙语的人更准确地回忆起谁无意中打碎了花瓶 (因为西班牙语没有obligate to describe it as unintentional behavior in terms of agency)
How do people’s spatial perception differ by cultures?
English Speaker → 用前后左右来识别空间
Guugu Yimithirr → 用东南西北来识别空间 （不受视角限制，用罗盘基点来描述）
Experiment
Method
参与者在一个房间的桌子上看到一排牛、猪和一个人的人物。桌子靠北墙，因此参与者面向北。然后他们被要求去另一个房间，那里有一张类似的桌子，上面有相同的数字，只不过现在桌子靠南墙，所以参与者面向南。他们被要求排列人物，创造出他们在第一个房间看到的相同场景。
Result
大多数讲荷兰语的人根据自己相对于三个人物的位置来安排顺序
根据左右安排顺序
Guugu Yimithirr 的顺序是反的因为他们根据东南西北安排顺序
在桌子东南西北被改变了之后他们对于事物的排列顺序也会改变
The ways people represent the passage of time:
English speakers tend to see time as passing from the left to the right
左边被视为时间的启起点
Guugu Yimithirr tended to arrange them from east to west, regardless of which direction they were facing
Is numerical cognition culturally learned?
Mathematical computations
Piraha number system only contains 1, 2, and “many.
在罐中的坚果数量大于6时，如果有坚果被取出无法判断是否是否被取出
在数字大于2时无法很好的完成数数这个任务
They do seem to have rough quantity estimation skills.
e.g. 他们知道 12 节电池比 8 节电池的数量更大，即使他们无法区分更相似的数量
数量越大越难完成任务
Numerical terms are necessary for calculations and many other aspects of mathematical thinking
没有数字的文迪的地方无法理解算数
Different view of numbers
The way people in industrialized societies learn about numbers is linear
17和18之间的距离被理解为与1和2之间的距离相同。
对尚未掌握数字概念的美国幼儿园儿童的研究表明他们对数字的感觉不是线性的，而是对数的感觉
They see larger amounts of space between small numbers than they do between large numbers
e.g. 他们将数字 10 识别为大约位于数字 1 和 100 之间的中间位置，与其对数值一致
As children get older, they come to have an increasingly linear understanding of numbers
This suggests that humans’ default understanding of numbers may be logarithmic, and that we only come to have a linear understanding of numbers by cultural learning, including exposure to linear numerical terms
Comparisons of Asian Americans and European Americans in their performance on the
Raven’s Matrices IQ test reveals that
a. Asian Americans tend to outpertorm European Americans.
b. European Americans do poorly on a task if they are reciting the alphabet at the same time.
c. European Americans consistently do better on a task if they are saying something than if they are silent.
d. Asian Americans do better on a task if they are reciting the alphabet than if they are silent.
e. Thinking and talking are largely unrelated for European Americans.
b. European Americans do poorly on a task if they are reciting the alphabet at the same time.
