Chapter 7 Living in Multicultural Worlds Flashcards
Why are acculturation studies difficult to conduct, especially longitudinally?
- People move to different cultures for many different reasons - some move as refugees, some move to study, and some as young children with their families.
人们迁移到不同的文化背景有很多不同的原因–有些人是作为难民迁移，有些人是为了学习而迁移，还有些人是在年幼的时候随家人迁移。
People move to many different kinds of contexts - cultural ghettos, homogenous neighborhoods, expatriate communities, or cultures which actively discriminate against them. 人们会迁移到许多不同的环境中–文化贫民窟 (唐人街）、同质化的社区 (everyone is foreigner）、外籍人士社区，或者积极歧视他们的文化。
Cultures vary in their similarity to people’s heritage culture.
America to Canada is similar culture
Furthermore, people have different personalities, goals, and expectations that affect their acculturation.
Hence, people’s experiences vary tremendously and there are few universal acculturation findings.
What happens when people move to a new culture? (the U-shaped curve)
Moving to a new culture involves psychological adjustment, and psychological adjustment can often be associated with stress.
One common pattern of acculturation is captured by a U-shaped curve
一开始对新的文化特别喜欢适应(honeymoon phase)，但是慢慢的有了cultural shock （如何看医生，吃饭，什么的）,思乡，或者交朋友很困难，然后再慢慢的适应
很多人在这个cultural shock期间回去自己的国家了
The U-shaped curve is quite common, although some people never experience the Honeymoon phase.
Will people experience cultural shock again when they go back home?
People also often go through a similar pattern when they return home after being abroad. They can experience reverse culture shock upon returning.人们在国外生活一段时间后回国，也往往会经历类似的情况。他们回国后可能会经历逆向文化冲击。
In more homogenous cultures, the adjustment phase of the curve is sometimes not experienced. For example, one study of immigrants to Japan showed an L-shaped curve (Hsiao-Ying, 1995).在同质文化较多的国家，有时不会经历曲线的适应阶段。 例如，一项针对日本移民的研究显示了一条 L 型曲线
有honeymoon，有cultural shock，但是很难有adjustment
对immigrants不太友好
Who adjusts better? What predicts how likely it is for a person to have an easier time acculturating to a culture?
- Cultural distance - that is how similar is their heritage culture to the host culture.
more distance it is, more adjustment it will be
A parallel phenomenon exists for learning another language.
学习另一种语言也存在类似的现象
Languages can be categorized by how recently they shared a common linguistic ancestor - this indicates how similar they are in terms of grammar and morphology. 语言可以根据其共同语言祖先的新近程度进行分类–这表明了它们在语法和形态方面的相似程度。
The more similar one’s native tongue is to English, the easier it is to learn English.
Likewise, the more similar one’s heritage culture is to one’s host culture, the easier it is to acculturate.
Sojourners who have greater cultural distance from the host culture tend to show more distress, have more medical consultations, and have more difficulty in making friendships with people from the host culture.与东道主文化有较大文化距离的寄宿者往往会表现出更多的痛苦，看更多的病，也更难与东道主文化的人交朋友。
例如，在文化相似的新加坡学习的马来西亚交换生比在文化距离较远的新西兰学习的交换生更容易适应
How did the First Nations adjust to the Western colonialization?
Three distinct tribes were assessed in terms of their cultural similarity to Western culture, and in the hardships that they faced. 我们评估了三个不同部落与西方文化的相似性，以及他们所面临的困难
The Tsimshian of the Northwest BC coast traditionally relied largely on subsistence practices (mostly fishing) that allowed them to accumulate large quantities of food and establish permanent highly stratified settlements.
不列颠哥伦比亚省西北海岸的齐姆希安人传统上主要依靠自给自足的方式（主要是捕鱼），这使他们能够积累大量食物，并建立起高度分层的永久性定居点。
The Eastern Cree from Northern Quebec were migratory, did not accumulate many resources, and had little stratification.
魁北克北部的东克里人则以迁徙为生，没有积累很多资源，也没有什么分层 本身就没有太多文化·和定居点
The Carrier, of Northeastern BC were intermediate in terms of their resource accumulation and social stratification.
不列颠哥伦比亚省东北部的克里人在资源积累和社会分层方面处于中间水平
Paralleling the cultural similarities with colonial culture, the Tsimshian acculturated to mainstream Canadian culture with the least acculturative stress （和加拿大文化最像）, the Eastern Cree showed the most difficulties, and the Carrier were intermediate
Can individuals’ personalities predict their acculturation success?
An individual’s personality is also predictive of their motivations to migrate elsewhere and in their acculturative success.一个人的性格也能预测他们移居他地的动机及其文化适应的成功与否。
Extraversion is expected to foster acculturative success, because extraverts communicate more, and are thus socialized more quickly to new cultural norms.外向型人格预计会促进文化移入的成功，因为外向型人格的人更善于交流，因而更快地适应新的文化规范。
Extraverted Finns from rural Finland are more likely to move to urban parts of Finland, than are less extraverted rural Finns. Apparently, people with a preference for social engagement enjoy the diverse social opportunities in urban regions (Jokela et al., 2008).与外向程度较低的农村芬兰人相比，来自芬兰农村的外向芬兰人更有可能移居芬兰的城市地区。 显然，喜欢参与社会活动的人喜欢城市地区多样化的社会机会
Extraversion might universally predict who is more likely to move to new environments.
However, extraversion does NOT universally predict acculturation success.
然而，外向性并不能普遍预测文化适应的成功与否。
What is the idea of cultural fit?
Whether the individual’s personality matches with that of the dominant host culture.
个人的个性是否与主流东道国文化相匹配。
Extraverts fare well in a largely extraverted culture, such as the US, but extraverts have more problems fitting in in less extraverted cultures, such as Singapore
外向的人在内向的国家就fit不好
Migrants with more independent self-concepts adjust more easily to Western cultures.自我概念更独立的移民更容易适应西方文化。
Migrants whose emotional patterns more closely resemble those of host culture have more satisfying relationships.情感模式更接近东道国文化的移民，其人际关系更令人满意。
First-generation university students whose self-concept fits better with university’s values are less likely to drop out.自我概念更符合大学价值观的第一代大学生辍学的可能性更小
Much of acculturation can be seen as a process of achieving greater cultural fit.
文化适应在很大程度上可以看作是一个实现更大程度文化契合的过程
What are four different strategies of acculturation?
两个culture都喜欢（integration）
两个都不喜欢（marginalization, worst one）
喜欢host不喜欢heritage（assimilation)
喜欢heritage不喜欢host（separation）
Refer to the 2x2 table in slides/notes
What does research show about those strategies?
The most common strategy is integration. This is hypothesized to be the most successful strategy, as a person should have two cultural communities from which to draw support. 最常见的策略是融合。 根据假设，这是最成功的策略，因为一个人应该有两个文化社区可以从中获得支持。
However, a minority of research finds assimilation strategy also yield positive outcomes.证明了融入新的culture最重要
Marginalization is the least common, and it has the fewest positive outcomes. Some suggest that this reflects neuroticism.边缘化是最不常见的策略，其积极结果也最少。 有人认为这反映了神经质
Assimilation and separation are intermediate in frequency同化和分离的频率介于两者之间
Assimilation has more positive outcomes than separation. Separation bears the cost of rejecting the host culture and all the protective features that it offers, and one gets further separated from the younger generations.同化比分离有更多的积极结果。 分离的代价是摒弃东道主文化及其提供的所有保护性特征，并与年轻一代进一步分离
Migrants with more distinctive physical features, or who are targets of prejudice are less likely adopt assimilation or integration strategies.身体特征更明显或成为偏见目标的移民不太可能采取同化或融合策略
look more different→ discrimination→ negative attitude and less use of assimilation and integration
What are the models of multiculturalism in Canada and the US?
Canada strives for a “salad bowl” model, where each ethnic group maintains its distinct characteristics, and adds unique flavor to the whole. 加拿大追求的是一种 “沙拉碗 “模式，即每个族裔群体都保持其鲜明的特点，并为整体增添独特的风味。
The US strives more for a “melting pot” model, where each ethnic group’s distinct characteristics are melted away as they learn to assimilate to the dominant culture
美国则更多地追求 “大熔炉 “模式，在这种模式下，每个族裔群体在学习融入主流文化的过程中，其鲜明特点都会被消融
Who are “third culture” kids?
Children who grow up with their expatriate parents in multiple places outside their heritage culture. 与外籍父母一起在其传统文化之外的多个地方长大的孩子
moving multiple places, going to international school
TCK’s tend to learn their heritage cultures from afar - something called remote acculturation. TCK 往往从远方学习他们的传统文化–这就是所谓的远距离文化适应
lack in first hand experiences of culture
They tend not to feel strong connections to any of their cultures, but have more of a global identity, and feel a sense of cultural homelessness.他们往往与自己的任何文化都没有紧密的联系，而更多的是一种全球身份认同，并有一种文化无家可归的感觉。
Research on TCK’s is rather new as they’re a difficult sample to study.对 TCK 的研究是一项新课题，因为他们是一个很难研究的样本
they have different set of experiences, lack of sample
They rely more on “marginalization” acculturation strategies.他们更依赖于 “边缘化 “的文化适应策略
Commonly feel reverse culture shock at returning to their parents’ home.回到父母家后，通常会感到逆向文化冲击
Feel like a minority wherever they go, and often associate more with other TCK’s.无论走到哪里，他们都觉得自己是少数群体，通常会更多地与其他 TCK 联系
Develop earlier maturity, very international in outlook, score lower in prejudice, and are often somewhat restless. 发育成熟较早，具有非常国际化的视野，在偏见方面得分较低，常常有些焦躁不安
In the process of adapting to new culture one need to see things in new ways
There can be particular benefits to learning how to see things differently
More of one perspective
Empty bowl ( in us is 招待的好，在中国代表主人准备的食物不够）
Do multicultural experiences foster creativity?
A key part of creativity is insight - when you see a problem in a novel way.创造力的一个关键部分是洞察力–当你以一种新颖的方式看待问题时
Creative insight might be fostered by adjusting to new cultural environments, where you learn to see things differently. Having more than one perspective leads to more creative insights.适应新的文化环境可以培养创造性洞察力，让你学会用不同的方式看待问题。 拥有一个以上的视角会带来更多的创造性洞察力。
Many famous artists and writers had multicultural experiences.许多知名艺术家和作家都有过多元文化的经历。
What is the candle-solving task showed by Steven in class illustrating?
MBA students were more likely to solve the candle task if they had spent time living abroad 在国外生活过一段时间的 MBA 学生更有可能完成蜡烛任务
candle, box and wax, use these objects to the wall and burns properly
Merely traveling abroad, as a tourist, in contrast, did not improve performance.相比之下，仅仅出国旅游并不能提高成绩
different from living and adapting (internalize) to a new culture
An alternative explanation is that creative people might be more likely to live abroad - perhaps creative people are more interested in living in other cultures.另一种解释是，有创造力的人可能更倾向于在国外生活–也许有创造力的人对在其他文化中生活更感兴趣。
To address this, it’s necessary to manipulate adaptation.为了解决这个问题，有必要对适应性进行操作
Describe the study on multicultural people (i.e., MBA students who had lived in more than one culture).
Participants in an “Adaptation prime” condition were asked to imagine adapting themselves to a foreign culture. 在 “适应素材 “条件下，参与者被要求想象自己如何适应外国文化。 (how you need to change)
In an “Observation prime” condition, participants were asked to imagine observing a foreign culture.在 “观察素材 “条件下，参与者被要求想象观察外国文化 (looking at the differences)
And participants in a control condition received no priming materials.而在对照组条件下，参与者则不接受任何启发材料。
In the creativity task, participants were asked to draw an alien. They were to imagine they had gone to a planet very different from earth.在创造性任务中，参与者被要求画一个外星人。 他们要想象自己去了一个与地球截然不同的星球
Coders rated the similarity to earth creatures and the number of sensory atypicalities.编码员会评定其与地球生物的相似度以及感官非典型性的数量
Result
Participants who thought about adapting to a new culture were more creative in their drawings compared to the other conditions.
Thinking about observing another culture didn’t yield the same effects. It seems to be that adaptation to other cultures is what is key to enhanced creativity. 思考观察另一种文化并没有产生同样的效果。 看来，适应其他文化是提高创造力的关键
Describe the experiment on fashion designers.
The fashion industry rates the creativity of different fashion designers each year.时尚界每年都会对不同时装设计师的创意进行评分
This study compared the ratings of the creativity of the designers based on:
本研究比较了根据以下因素对设计师创造力的评价：
Breadth (number of foreign countries lived in)
Depth (number of years spent abroad）
Cultural Distance (how culturally different are the places they’ve lived).
Each of these was associated with more creativity (see Godart et al., 2015).
Breadth and cultural distance showed a curvilinear relation (meaning that the ideal was a moderate amount of multicultural experience)
呆过的国家数量不是越多越好 cultural distance, 也不是越远越好, moderate最好
What are multicultural experiences associated with?
greater psychological richness (associated with feeling life is more meaningful).更丰富的心理（感觉生活更有意义）
greater trust of others.
BUT
People can become more morally relative, and less likely to follow their own moral compass. 人们在道德上会变得更加相对，更不可能遵循自己的道德
you can do anything since another culture think is okay
People who have bad multicultural experiences may become more prejudiced
有不良多元文化经历的人可能会变得更有偏见
being discriminated→ prejudice toward
Adapting to a new culture does not only bring positive outcomes.
Acculturation can be negative when immigrants pick up the less desirable characteristics of a culture.
Many immigrants live in the poorest neighborhoods. The crime rate and the drop-out rate in these neighborhoods can be quite high.
Ironically, those immigrants who are especially adept at fitting in with their new surroundings, are more likely to drop out of school and engage in criminal activities.具有讽刺意味的是，那些特别善于融入新环境的移民更有可能辍学和从事犯罪活动
Which of the following is NOT true about creativity and multicultural experiences?
a. The most creative people are those who have lived in the largest number of different countries.
b. People who are more open to experience are more likely to travel to different countries.
c. Adjusting to life in different countries is associated with more creativity.
d. Visiting countries as a tourist is not associated with greater creativity.
a
What’s the relationship between obesity and living in America?
The longer immigrants have lived in the US, the more likely they are to pick up the eating habits and obesity levels.移民在美国生活的时间越长，就越容易养成饮食习惯和肥胖程度
What is identity denial?
Often, visible minorities are viewed as not really fully belonging.
Others might not believe that they’re really from North America.
This experience can be frustrating and is known as identity denial.这种经历可能令人沮丧，被称为身份否认
“you do not look canadian”
Minority members might try to overcompensate to demonstrate how much they fit in少数族裔成员可能会试图过度补偿，以证明他们是多么融入其中
Describe the experiment on identity denial.
One study asked Asian-American and Euro-American participants whether they could speak English (control group wasn’t asked this). 一项研究询问了亚裔美国人和欧裔美国人的参与者是否会说英语（对照组不问这个问题）
When Asian-Americans felt their identity was denied, they stated having food preferences more similar to Euro-Americans.当亚裔美国人感到自己的身份被否定时，他们表示对食物的偏好与欧裔美国人更为相似
Other research finds that when their identity is threatened, Asian-Americans will also order more Western food, even though in the study they end up consuming more calories for doing so. 其他研究发现，当亚裔美国人的身份受到威胁时，他们也会点更多的西餐，尽管在研究中他们最终会因此摄入更多的卡路里
What kind of self-concept do people have who live in more than one culture?
There are two ways that multicultural experiences impact the self-concept, and there is some evidence for both.
1. Blending - People’s self-concepts reflect a hybrid of their two cultural worlds.
falls in between two culture
2. Frame-switching - People maintain multiple self-concepts and switch between them depending on context.
What are the experimental evidences for blending? 1
- We assessed the self-esteem of people longitudinally across two points in time: prior to moving to a new culture and then again 7 months after moving.我们在两个时间点上对人们的自尊进行了纵向评估：移居新文化之前和移居 7 个月之后。
When Japanese had lived in Canada for 7 months, their self-esteem increased significantly.当日本人在加拿大生活 7 个月后，他们的自尊心明显增强。
In contrast, when Canadians had lived in Japan for 7 months, their self-esteem decreased significantly相反，当加拿大人在日本生活 7 个月后，他们的自尊心明显下降
What are the experimental evidences for blending? 2
- In another study we compared the self-esteem of people with exposure to East Asian and Canadian culture cross-sectionally.在另一项研究中，我们横向比较了受过东亚和加拿大文化熏陶的人的自尊心
We had a very large sample (about 5000) that we divided in terms of people’s exposure to North American culture along a continuum. 我们有一个非常大的样本（约 5000 人），根据人们对北美文化的接触程度，我们将其划分为一个连续体。
Starting with the least exposure we had:
“Never Been-Abroad” Japanese, who had never left Japan.
“Been-Abroad” Japanese, who had spent some time in the West.
Recent East Asian Immigrants, who had been in North America for less than 7 years.
Long-Term East Asian Immigrants, who had been in North America for more than 7 years.
2nd-Generation East Asian Canadians.
3rd-Generation East Asian Canadians
European-Canadians
Result: Self-Esteem and Exposure to North American Culture
“Never Been-Abroad” Japanese have moderate self-esteem scores whereas European-Canadians have high self-esteem.
The self-esteem of East Asians increases with exposure to North American culture.
The self-esteem of 3rd Generation Asian-Canadians is indistinguishable from European-Canadians. If this result can be generalized, it suggests that three generations is necessary for complete acculturation.如果这一结果可以推广，则表明三代人的文化完全融合是必要的
What are some evidences for frame-switching?
Rather than blending two self-concepts, an alternative account is that people switch between two different self-concepts.另一种说法是人们在两种不同的自我概念之间切换，而不是混合两种自我概念
The blending evidence might reflect the proportion of people who are currently thinking in a Western style or in an East Asian style.
Evidence of frame-switching is clear in language use. 框架转换的证据在语言使用中很明显
There is much evidence for frame-switching in ways of thinking.在思维方式上有很多框架转换的证据
For example, inner-city African-Americans switch between the “code of the decent” and the “code of the street.” Different contexts require different ways of speaking and interacting with people. 例如，市内的非洲裔美国人在 “体面的准则 “和 “街头的准则 “之间转换。 不同的环境需要不同的说话方式和与人交往的方式。
People are responsive to contextual cues about how they should act and present themselves to others. 人们会对环境的暗示做出反应，知道自己应该如何行动，如何向他人展示自己。
Do people frame-switch between different ways of thinking that might not be conscious to them?人们会在不同的思维方式之间进行框架转换吗？
answer is yes
What are some experimental evidences for frame-switching?
Biculturals have been investigated to see whether of cultural ideas lead them to switch between different cultural thinking styles
研究人员对双文化人进行了调查，以了解文化观念的 primes是否会导致他们在不同的文化思维方式之间进行转换
Students from Hong Kong were shown images that were either neutral, or primed Western ideas, or Chinese ideas
They were asked why is the front fish swimming ahead of the others? Is it something about the fish (internal attribution) or about the school (external).
他们被问到，为什么前面的鱼会游在其他鱼的前面？ 是与鱼有关（内部归因）还是与学校有关（外部归因）
internal ( 这条鱼自身的原因）
external (这只鱼的处境）
Internal attributions are more commonly made among Westerners, and external attributions are more commonly made among non-Westerners.西方人更常做出内部归因，而非西方人则更常做出外部归因
Result:
Those who saw American primes were the least likely to explain the fish’s behavior in terms of the group of fish.看到美国原型的人最不可能用鱼群来解释鱼的行为。
Those who saw Chinese primes were the most likely to explain the fish’s behavior in terms of the group of fish.而看到中文预设的人则最有可能从鱼群的角度来解释鱼的行为。
Hong Kong participants have access to both Western and non-Western ways of making sense of the fish’s behavior, and which one they use depends on which cultural context has been activated for them.香港的参与者可以同时使用西方和非西方的方法来解释鱼的行为，他们使用哪种方法取决于他们在哪个prime
What are some primes that have shown evidence for frame-switching?
In particular, the language of the study appears to effectively prime different cultural thoughts among bilinguals.
When bilinguals switch languages they also appear to be switching their self-concepts as well.当双语者转换语言时，他们似乎也在转换自我概念
These studies raise the question of whether biculturals are the only ones who show frame-switching.这些研究提出了一个问题：是否只有双文化人表现出框架转换？
no
Indeed, much research finds that priming ideas in anyone, monocultural or multicultural, leads to the activation of associated networks. However, multicultural people show more pronounced 明显frame-switching
事实上, 无论是单一文化还是多元文化背景的人，对任何人的想法进行引申都会导致相关网络的激活
What does the name “migrants” mean? What does the culture adjustment pattern look like for migrants?
Migrants: people who move from a heritage culture to a host culture
- Sojourners寄居者
include those who intend to stay temporarily
- Immigrants
those who intend to stay permanently
Culture adjustment pattern
- Honeymoon stage
enjoy their new experience in the new environment
keeps the tourism industry in business
- Culture shock (Crisis stage)
is the feeling of being anxious, helpless, irritable, and generally disoriented and homesick on moving to a new culture
new experiences become tiring and difficult
realize their language skills are not yet good enough
migrants just don’t have enough lcoal knowledge or understanding to fully participate in the conversations
开始怀念以前国内的一切他们热爱的东西
- Adjustment stage
adjust and began to enjoy their experiences more
with time, people become increasingly competent at functioning in their new culture
take years of this adjustment process
- Reverse culture shock
Sojourners can go through the same adjustment stages after they return to their home country
在回国后发现自己不适应家乡文化 (和记忆里的不一样）
but this model not apply to all the situations
some people do not have honeymoon stage
How can we improve the adjustments of migrants?
Migrants can be accommodated（被接纳）
A feature of host culture that helps the adjustment of newcomers
America example:
most ethnically diverse nations
people can adjust to US culture more easily
Japan example:
relatively ethnically homogenous
Trying to adjust as a migrant to a homogenous society would seem to be inherently more challenging
L-shaped curve
had the honeymoon and crisis stages but did not include an adjustment stage （生活五年和一年一样消极）
What is one factor in determining who can adjust better/faster?
CULTURAL DISTANCE:
- difference between two cultures in their overall ways of life.
- more culture distance more hard to learn new culture
Language ability is one of the best predictors of acculturation success
the easier it is for migrants to learn the language of their host culture, the better they should fare in the acculturation process
source of data (TOEFL)
The ease with which people learn English is influenced by how distant their mother tongue is from English, and thus how much new learning is involved
Dutch (100), Japanese (70)
Ability to master many skills
Experiment of acculturation success and overall cultural distance migrants must cove
马来西亚的学生比更容易适应新加坡而不是新西兰的文化因为马来西亚的文化和新加坡文化更加接近
Adaptation 不代表离开祖国
Inside country example （殖民势力强加的文化）
Tsimshian people → highly complex social stratified settlements long before they had any contact with Europeans
Carrier → middle closeness to Canadian culture
Eastern Cree → some of the bands are migratory and have low sociocultural stratification
Acculturative stress → Eastern Cree > Carrier > Tsimshian people
cultural distance predicts how difficult acculturation experiences can be
What is another approach that determines how well one can fit into the host culture?
CULTURAL FIT
the degree to which an individual’s personality is compatible with the dominant values of the host culture
Extervated people
high on extraversion are more likely to move to other countries
Countries with more immigrants should thus be expected to have disproportionate numbers of people with personality traits, such as extraversion
* Extraversion does not always facilitate acculturation
e.g. 内向的人更好适应新加坡的文化
people who have emotional patterns more similar to those of the host culture experience greater relational well-being
Acculturation in university:
American universities have relatively independent norms
first generation students are more likely to be from a working-class background with interdependent culture → more acculturative stress (大学independent norm了）
What are four acculturation strategies people can adopt?
Two points of success of anyone’s acculturation experience:
- whether people attempt to participate in the larger society of their host culture
- whether people strive to maintain their own heritage culture and identity as members of that culture
- Integration strategy
The strategy that involves efforts to fit in and fully participate in the host culture, while at the same time striving to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture - Marginalization strategy
the strategy that involves little or no effort to participate in the host culture or to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture - Assimilation strategy
involves efforts to fit in and fully participate in the host culture, while making little or no effort to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture - Separation strategy
involves efforts to maintain the traditions of the heritage culture, while making little or no effort to participate in the host culture
Most common strategies people use is integration, least common is marginalization, assimilation and separation falls in between
What are some factors influencing which acculturation strategy people use?
if host culture 当地文化对你的文化群体展示出来偏见→ more less likely to be fit into the host culture
physically distinct ethnic groups → more prejudice + negative attitudes toward the host culture + actively support collective efforts to benefit their group’s social position （集体努力提高自己的地位）
Low SES or indigenous people → pursue separation or marginalization strategies
How much host culture value cultural diversity and tolerate cultural differences predict immigrant’s experience of prejudice
- Salad bowl model(multicultural model)
the distinct qualities of immigrant cultures are maintained
- Melting pot model (assimilationist model)
The most successful strategy is integration
resulting in the lowest level of acculturative stress
Least successful one is marginalization
What are some pitfalls of acculturation?
immigrant paradox:
children of immigrants have a variety of negative outcomes
这是自相矛盾的，因为与移民父母相比，移民子女的文化适应或同化程度更高
Obesity as an example
在美国呆的越久越容易变胖，吸烟，和不良行为
Acculturating individuals can fare worse over time.
在新奥尔良的越南移民中，他们在学校的表现越好，他们的upwardly mobile就越高，他们的违法行为越少，他们就越难融入更广泛的社区
Immigrants tend to have a stronger motivation to do well at school compared to children of immigrants, who have become more acculturated to local norms
与移民子女相比，移民往往有更强的动力在学校取得好成绩，因为移民子女更适应当地的规范
not all cultural habits lead to positive outcomes
What are people’s responses to identity denial?
questioning one’s culture identity because they are not recognized as matching the prototype of the host culture
is perceived to not really be from the host culture and being asked “where are you really from?”
Experiment: How Asian American deal with identity denial
当他们被质疑美国人的身份后，他们do better in listing 美国电视节目和美国习惯compared with those who were not confronted with identity-denying statements
被denial的亚裔美国人也点更多的美国食物（汉堡牛排），认为这更加符合host culture
The identity denied Asian Americans wished to publicly affirm their American identity
What is the impact of stereotype threat?
the fear of behaving in a way that will inadvertently confirm a negative stereotype about one’s group.担心自己的行为会无意中证实对本群体的负面刻板印象
realize they risk confirming a negative stereotype → experience stereotype threat → end up proving the stereotype
非洲人被认为智力低，导致他们顶着刻板印象，他们就会脑海浮现“黑人”“失败者”，internalize然后发挥失常
Physcial influence
blood pressure increases
working memory capacity decreases
Describe research findings on stereotype threat.
GRE experiment
Condition 1: Candidates are not required to choose their race
Conditions : Candidates are required to choose their race before test
Result
Americans who had to check race had significantly lower GRE scores because their stereotypical influence was activated
Stereotype threat generalizes broadly to virtually all groups with negative stereotypes
Stereotype threat and positive associations
Condition1: control conditions
Condition2: Ss watch animations with images of Native Americans
Result
the Ss who look at the animations →elicit stereotype, lower self-esteem, less pride in their community, and fewer achievement goals
any stereotyped portrayals can greatly influence the way others perceive them as a cultural group （尽管是好的，也能引起stereotype threat)
Stereotype makes acculturation more difficult for disadvantaged minorities.
solution: simply to learn about its existence.
remain optimistic that these stereotype will someday be reduced
Benefit of being distinctive group
well-defined cultural identity are more likely to have a strong sense of loyalty
group membership becomes an important source of self-esteem and meaning in their lives
白人异性恋男的就没有这种独特的身份认同感，因为很普遍，但是作为独特的群体就更加有忠诚
What does blending refer to in multicultural people? What are evidences for blending?
Blending
The tendency for bicultural people to show psychological characteristics in between those of their two cultures
思维方式介于两种文化的中间，不中不西的
Evidence for Blending
Influence on self-esteem experiment
通常在加拿大，人们接触到的文化信息侧重于他们的优势，而在日本，人们接触到的信息侧重于他们的劣势
测量人们到另一个文化后几天和七个月的区别：
Japanese exchange students come to Canada with higher self-esteem
Canadian female teacher who went to teach in Japan had lower self-esteem
how long to acculturate to the norms of a host culture？
Experient 2:
比较七种人群，从从未出国的日本人到European加拿大人
发现了明显的coorelation：The longer those of Asian descent had spent participating in North American culture, the higher their self-esteem score
it takes about three generations to get that level
需要三代人的省时间才能完全接近加拿大人的自尊 （尽管七个月就很明显了）
东亚人可能比欧洲移民需要更多时间去适应加拿大，因为文化distance更远
it’s unclear whether different psychological processes acculturate at the same rate
What does frame-switching refer to in multicultural people? What are evidences for frame-switching?
Alternating between different cultural selves
develop divergent selves that can be selectively activated by different cultural contexts
Evidence for Frame-Switching
在不同的文化环境下有着不同的文化自我，可以同时掌握两个
Language
speaking different language depend on the context
Code-switching
inner city african american children understand在学校和街头该如何切换norm
Switching language lead to frame-switching
bilingual Chinese Canadians and Hong Kong students were far more likely to describe themselves in positive terms when answering questionnaires in English than when answering in Chinese
Evidence for two existing culture identity
Experiment:
当他们认为演讲是在庆祝非裔美国毕业生的背景下时，学生们比那些认为演讲是在庆祝特定专业毕业生（例如政治学毕业生）的背景下写的更多相互依存的主题。people who experienced varied culture could be led to think in ways that are more consistent with the primed culture.
How do multiculturals engage in frame switching? How is it shown in leading fish experiment?
美国文化activate network of independence, confidence, freedom, and individual right
Leading fish experiment (308)
Background
Chinese → external attribution → situational factors cause people to act a certain way
American → internal attributions → personality factors cause people to act a certain way
Sample
Hongkong students (中西文化都接触）
Conditions
see American prime
see Chinese prime
neutral
Result
Student see America primes → explained the fish’s behavior less in terms of the group’s influence than those in a neutral prime condition
activated chinese cultural knowledge network
Student see Chinese primes → explained the fish’s behavior more in terms of the group influencing it than those in the neutral prime condition
The Hong Kong Chinese were capable of explaining the fish’s behavior in
either the typically American or the typically Chinese way. They switched cultural
frames of reference, depending on which cultural information network was activated.
What is the degree of bicultural identity integration?
Depends on their degrees of bicultural identity integration
the extent to which bicultural people see their two cultural identities as compatible or in opposition to each other.双文化人在多大程度上认为他们的两种文化身份是相互兼容或相互对立的
认为文化是兼容的人更加用frame swtich
认为只能认同一种的话更低
high integration → 将两种文化融入到生活中 → better frame switch
low intergration → 必须选择一种身份
以移民相比，在北美出生的bicultural PEOPLE用switch frame更常见
Another primes lead to frame switching is language
当人们在看到自己heritage文化标志的时候，这会干扰他们学习host culture语言的能力，因为语言被自己的文化机会了影响了他们的思维方式
think more like host culture
Are bicultural people the only ones who can be primed to think in culturally distinct ways?
Tennis Experiment
(background)
The Chinese believe that not losing a game is more important than success (prevention)
The American believes that win the game is more important than not losing the game (promotion orientation)
测试prime美国人思考他们互相依赖，会不会focus on prevention
study
Americans under personal competition conditions → success
Americans under team competition conditions → not loss
因为interdependent tthoughts were primed and activated
Result
This is because of situated cognition, some least common ideas are still present within American culture, just need to activate associated with interdependence.
Even monocultural people can probably be primed to think in ways that are similar to other cultures if those ways of thinking are sometimes present in their own minds
Who is the definition of third culture kids?
people who traveled with their expatriate parents and spend large parts of their years living in place outside their heritage culture (global nomads)
Feeling of culture homeless
Culture shock
experience it because their experiences in their host culture are at odds(不一致） with their heritage cultural identity
report having reverse culture shock when they return to their parents’ heritage culture
sense of being a minority wherever they go (hard to fit in)
their acculturation process → marginalization strategy
tend to be less ethnocentric （民主为中心）
和父母关系很好
score lower on measures of prejudice
How is multiculturalism related to creativity?
Creativity and multicultural experiment
People who had lived in more than one culture were more likely to come up with outside-the-box creative solutions to a problem than those who had lived in only one culture
High creative insights, see things with different perspective
children raised with multiple language perform better in perspective-taking task
但是不包括旅游，因为不需要适应
Integrative complexity
- Definition: A willingness and ability to acknowledge and consider different viewpoints on the same issue
在新文化呆了十个月后得分更高
Experiencing life in unfamiliar cultures fosters this way of thinking
Contributed to the enhanced performance by multiculturals on creativity tasks
也有可能创造力的人本身对适应新的文化更感兴趣 （bidirectional) and openness predicts creativity
Multicultural experience cause increasing creativity (Experiment)
three conditons
adapting to life in another culture (ready for it)
observing another culture
neutral condition
让他们去创造一个外星生物
Result
only the people who adjusted to the new culture are more creative
What factors are influencing the creativity of professional fashion designers?
a curvilinear relationship between the number of countries a creative director had lived in (breadth) and the ratings of his or her creative innovations
不是越多越好，2个似乎是最好的
nearly linear relationship between the amount of time they had lived abroad (depth) and the ratings of their creative innovations
the longer the time, the higher the creativity
一个地方住得越长越好
a curvilinear relationship between cultural distance and creativity
people who are moderately different from each other were rated as the most creative
不是越远越好
Define the concept of moral relativism.
oral relativism
多元文化产生的负面结果
the belief that what is right or wrong is not absolute; it depends on different cultural factors
People who had visited multiple cultures were more likely to score higher on a measure of moral relativism, and were also more likely to act immorally (cheating on a lab task for a possible financial reward)
Bjorn is a nonvisilbe minority member, while Trang is a member of a visible minority. Trang is more likely than Bjorn to
a. experience an L-shaped acculturation curve
b. have his acculturative stress be influenced by his initial experiences in the host culture
c. have a personality with poor cultural fit
d. have a separation acculturation strategy
e. use blending
d. have a separation acculturation strategy
In addition, people with physical features that distinguish them
from the majority in the host culture will probably face more prejudice than people
whose physical features let them blend in. Therefore, physically distinct ethnic groups
are more likely to maintain negative attitudes toward the host culture and pursue
separation or marginalization strategies
