Chapter 10 Emotion Flashcards
Describe the James-Lange theory of emotions.
Emotions are our physiological responses to stimuli.
These responses are products of our autonomic nervous system.
If we didn’t have such physiological sensations, we would feel emotionless.
Describe the Two-Factor Theory of Emotions.
Schacter and Singer argued that emotions were our interpretations of our physiological responses.
- first is physiological, then our interpretation
Interpretation often isn’t important, because usually it is clear what caused our physiological responses.
But sometimes the source of our feelings isn’t so clear to us. In these situations there is evidence for the Two-Factor theory.
Describe the capilano suspension bridge study and its results.
IV1: Young males met either an attractive female research assistant or an average-looking male research assistant, IV2: either just as they stepped off of the Capilano Suspension Bridge, or when they were standing on the wooden platform at the base of the park.
DV: They were asked to complete a questionnaire.
One of the dependent measures was the percentage of participants who later called up the research assistant (see Dutton & Aron, 1974).
Participants were especially likely to call the RA if she was female and they had met her on the bridge.
Apparently, the men misattributed their arousal from the bridge to be due to their attraction to the RA.
The same physiological arousal can be interpreted as two very different emotions.
The physiological sensations/ muscle movements associated with emotions do not vary much across cultures.
There is more emotional variability across cultures in people’s interpretations of those sensations.
Are facial expressions of emotions universal?
those made by humans.
Paul Ekman and colleagues explored how similarly people made emotional expressions around the world.
They initially found much similarity across industrialized countries.
However, this could be due to shared cultural learning. It was important to test people from an isolated culture: the Fore of New Guinea.
Participants were asked to show their expressions imagining if a number of different events had happened to them.
Ekman proposed that there are a set of “basic emotions” which are reflexively reproduced and recognized for all humans: happiness, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, and fear.
Pride also is a universally recognized expression, although the expression involves a bodily posture
Are there cultural variations in recognizing universal basic emotional expressions?
Cultures vary in terms of “display rules” of emotional expressions.
One example is a “ritualized display” - i.e., an expression not made universally
Another display rule is the intensity with which people show their emotions.
People from highly heterogeneous cultures express their emotions with more intensity than those from more homogeneous ones.
When the people around you might be socialized by different norms people adopt strategies to express their feelings in a way that is most likely to be understood.
People are more accurate at recognizing expressions made by people from their own culture compared with other cultures.
About 58% of recognition of facial expressions reflects universal expressions, whereas about 9% reflects culturally specific expressions.
People do better at the “Eyes test” measure of autistic tendencies when they’re judging people from their own cultures compared with those from other cultures
How can comparisons of similar cultures show differences in subtle emotional accents?
People can guess better than chance who is from their own culture when they are making an emotional expression but not when they are showing a neutral expression. 当人们做出情绪表达时，他们能比别人更容易猜出谁是自己文化中的人，但当他们做出中性表达时就不行了
How do cultures vary in the aspects of face that they consider when judging another’s emotion?
For example, in Japan, cultural display rules more often require that people conceal potentially disharmonious emotions. 例如，在日本，文化展示规则通常要求人们隐藏潜在的不和谐情绪
Because it is more difficult to control the muscles around your eyes than it is around your mouth, Japanese are more likely than Americans are to judge people’s emotions by looking at their eyes. 由于眼睛周围的肌肉比嘴巴周围的肌肉更难控制，日本人比美国人更倾向于通过观察眼睛来判断他人的情绪
Japanese and Americans were shown photos of expressed emotions, and guessed the target’s emotion. 研究人员向日本人和美国人展示了表达情绪的照片，并让他们猜测目标的情绪。
The researchers swapped the eyes and mouths from photos of different expressions, so that the eyes and mouths conveyed different emotions研究人员将不同表情照片中的眼睛和嘴巴对调，使眼睛和嘴巴传达出不同的情绪
Japanese judge faces with happy eyes more happy (attend to th eyes)
Americans judge happy mouth more happy
Japanese viewed the target’s emotion as happier than Americans if the eyes were expressing a happier emotion than the mouth. In contrast, the Americans judged the target to be happier if the mouth was expressing a happier emotion than the eyes. 如果目标的眼睛比嘴巴表达的情绪更快乐，日本人就会比美国人更快乐地看待目标的情绪。 与此相反，如果嘴巴比眼睛表达出更快乐的情绪，美国人则认为目标人物更快乐。
To summarize all of the cross-cultural facial expression research, facial expressions are largely universal with a smaller culturally-learned component. 概括所有跨文化面部表情研究，面部表情在很大程度上是通用的，只有较少的文化学习成分
Describe more evidence for cultural variability in the experiences of emotions.
Cultures vary in the intensity with which they report experiencing emotions.
For example, East Asians report experiencing emotions less intensely, and for shorter periods of time than do Westerners. 例如，与西方人相比，东亚人的情绪体验强度较低，持续时间也较短
One study conducted at UBC compared how Chinese-Canadians and Euro-Canadians responded to an anger provocation.卑诗大学进行的一项研究比较了华裔加拿大人和欧裔加拿大人对愤怒挑衅的反应
Participants were run through an “anger paradigm,” where they were badgered by a rude experimenter, while their blood pressure and heart rate were assessed. 研究人员对参与者进行了 “愤怒范式 “训练，让他们接受粗鲁的实验者的挑衅，同时对他们的血压和心率进行评估
All participants showed physiological responses consistent with anger (their systolic blood pressure increased), but there were differences in how quickly their anger dissipated 所有参与者都表现出了与愤怒相一致的生理反应（收缩压升高），但在愤怒消散的速度上却存在差异
The Chinese-Canadians systolic blood pressure returned to baseline levels more quickly than did the Euro-Canadians.
This suggests the Chinese-Canadians resolved their anger faster.
Is pursuit of happiness universal?
Some date the beginning of this pursuit in the West to the Enlightenment, from the 18th century, when the world became seen to be a more predictable and rational place.有些人将这种追求在西方的开始归功于 18 世纪的启蒙运动，当时人们认为世界变得更可预测、更理性
There are substantial cultural differences in terms of the average levels of happiness that people report.就人们报告的平均幸福水平而言，存在着巨大的文化差异
Ranking of Countries by Subjective Well-Being
- quite big differences
- Happier countries tend to be: Northern European or Latin American, wealthy, respect human rights, more income equality, less corruption
- Less Happier countries: Former Soviet Bloc, South Asian, or African, less wealthy, fewer human rights, less income equality, more corruption
Does Money Make you Happy?
GDP越高，well-being 高（但是只是在你低的时候）
How has the concept of happiness evolved over the years?
Early English definitions of happiness emphasized that it was the result of good luck.
A recent analysis of dictionaries from 30 different countries found that definitions of happiness include a definition involving luck in 24 of them (but no longer in English).
The expression “happy person” has become more common over time, and “happy nation” has become less common in published American books.随着时间的推移，”幸福的人 “这一表述越来越常见，而 “幸福的国家 “在美国出版的书籍中则越来越少
Happiness has become more of an individual concept. 幸福已成为一个更加个性化的概念
How do cultures vary in terms of the importance they ascribe to happiness?
Consider the question of why is it that you choose what you do? Did you choose your major because you believe that you’ll be happier for doing so? Or did you choose it for other reasons? 想想你为什么选择自己的职业？ 你选择你的专业是因为你相信这样做你会更幸福吗？ 还是出于其他原因？
What guides decision?
One study asked UBC students to choose between tasks (Falk, Dunn, & Norenzayan, 2010).一项研究要求加拿大卑诗大学的学生在不同任务之间做出选择
Participants decided between two puzzle games. 参与者在两个益智游戏中做出选择
One game was described as fun, but not very useful, whereas the other was described as dull, but would improve thinking skills. 其中一个游戏被描述为有趣，但用处不大，而另一个游戏被描述为枯燥，但能提高思维能力
Which Game to Choose?
Euro-Canadians showed an overwhelming preference for the fun game. 欧裔加拿大人绝大多数倾向于趣味游戏。
Among Asian-Canadians the decision was much closer. 而在亚裔加拿大人中，他们的选择则更为接近。
Similar findings emerged for studies where people chose hypothetical university courses.在人们选择假设的大学课程的研究中也出现了类似的结果
Does dwelling on negative feelings produce negative outcomes?
Cultures vary to the extent that people strive to enhance positive feelings and avoid negative feelings. 不同文化背景下，人们努力增强积极情绪和避免消极情绪的程度各不相同
For North Americans, the more positive feelings they experience the less depression and health problems they report.对于北美人来说，积极情绪越多，抑郁和健康问题就越少
For East Asians, the amount of positive feelings and risk of depression and health problems is uncorrelated.对于东亚人来说，积极情绪的多少与抑郁和健康问题的风险无关
Russians are famous for apparently wanting to wallow in their despair.
俄罗斯人显然以沉溺于绝望而闻名
Russians and Americans were compared in terms of how much they tend to brood, how much they identified with a ruminating target in vignettes, and how depressed they were 研究人员比较了俄罗斯人和美国人在多大程度上倾向于沉思、在多大程度上认同小故事中的反刍目标以及他们的抑郁程度
Rumination involves repetitive thinking or dwelling on negative feelings and distress and their causes and consequences.
Russians reported brooding more than Americans and they identified more with the ruminating target.俄罗斯人比美国人更喜欢沉思，他们对沉思目标的认同度也更高。
Americans who ruminated were more depressed than those who didn’t. Rimunate的美国人比不ruminate的美国人更抑郁
There was no difference in depression levels between ruminating and non-ruminating Russians. ruminate和不ruminate的俄罗斯人在抑郁水平上没有差异
What makes life satisfying in individualistic cultures vs. collectivistic cultures?
One study compared dozens of countries on their individualism, their life satisfaction scores, their overall positive affect, and the extent to which people felt they were living up to cultural norms.一项研究比较了数十个国家的个人主义、生活满意度得分、总体积极情感以及人们认为自己符合文化规范的程度
In the most individualistic countries, life satisfaction was more strongly predicted by people’s overall level of positive affect.在个人主义最盛行的国家，人们的总体积极情感水平对生活满意度的预测作用更大
people say happy→ satisfied life
In the least individualistic countries, life satisfaction was more strongly predicted by the extent to which people felt they were living up to cultural norms. 而在个人主义程度最低的国家，人们认为自己符合文化规范的程度对生活满意度的影响更大
not tied to having a good life
What are two different ways we can consider happiness?
我们可以从两种截然不同的角度来看待幸福
1) The sum total of all the happy feelings that you have experienced.
你经历过的所有快乐感受的总和
2) How you retrospectively evaluate your happiness.
你如何回顾评估自己的幸福感 (how happy have you been)
Much research finds that it’s people’s retrospective evaluations of their happiness that guide their decisions in life.许多研究发现，人们对自己幸福感的回顾性评价指导着他们的生活决策
Daniel Kahneman: (Ted talk)
The riddle of experience vs. memory
being happy in life or being happy about life?
patient A had a much worse memory of the colonoscopy than patient B even if patient B suffered longer durations of pain
experiencing self: B had a worse time
remembering self: A had worse memory
We go on vacations for the service of our remembering self
Transient Experiences vs. Permanent Memories: The experiencing self is aware of moment-to-moment happenings, which are fleeting, while the remembering self constructs our narrative identity based on memories.
Peak-End Rule in Memory: Kahneman highlights how our memories of experiences, such as pain, are influenced more by the intensity at the peak and at the end of the experience, rather than the total duration.
Influence on Happiness and Decisions: The remembering self has a greater impact on decision-making and future choices because it shapes how we view our happiness and life story.
Implications for Economics and Public Policy: Understanding the distinction between experiencing and remembering can lead to changes in how well-being is evaluated, focusing not just on real-time experiences but also on how those experiences are remembered and perceived.
What are two kinds of satisfaction studied?
There were no cultural differences in actual daily reports of satisfaction.
However, there were pronounced cultural differences in people’s retrospective reports. 在实际的日常满意度报告中没有文化差异
Retrospective accounts are influenced largely by people’s theories of what they think their life is like. 然而，在人们的回顾性报告中却存在明显的文化差异
Euro-Americans are more likely than Asian-Americans to possess a theory that they are happy, even when their daily reports might not be.欧裔美国人比亚裔美国人更有可能拥有自己是幸福的理论，即使他们的日常报告可能并非如此
remember them more positively
What kind of happiness do East Asians vs. North Americans prefer?
Cultures also differ in the kinds of positive emotions that people want to pursue - “ideal affect.”
Cultural variation is more pronounced for the kinds of affect that people want to have than for their actual affect.
East Asians prefer low arousal positive states (e.g., calm, relaxed, peaceful) compared with North Americans, who tend to prefer high arousal positive states (e.g., enthusiastic, excited, elated; see Tsai, 2006).
Music: East Asians prefer music with slower tempos than Westerners.
East Asians say they prefer more passive leisure activities (e.g., sightseeing, hanging out, picnicking) and Westerners prefer more active ones (e.g., running, rollerblading).
East Asians use more drugs that elicit calm states (e.g., heroin and opium); Westerners use more that elicit excited states (e.g., cocaine and amphetamines).
What are some other differences in people’s choice of happiness in different cultures?
Children’s books in the US include bigger and more excited smiles than those in Taiwan.
When kids from the two cultures were shown either exciting or calm storybooks, they subsequently chose activities that were either exciting or calm. The books appear to socialize kids into preferring different affective states.
Western self-help books encourage more high arousal positive states than East Asian self-help books, where calmness is emphasized more.西方的自助书籍比东亚的自助书籍更鼓励高度唤醒的积极状态，后者更强调平静
Christian religious texts encourage more energetic states than do Buddhist religious texts, which encourage more calm states.基督教宗教书籍比佛教书籍更鼓励精力充沛的状态，而佛教书籍则更鼓励平静的状态
Chinese magazines contain ads with more calm smiles and fewer excited smiles than American magazines
In sum, there is pronounced variation in levels of happiness across cultures.总之，不同文化的幸福水平存在明显差异。
There are some things that universally appear to predict happiness, such as a minimum level of wealth, human rights, and income equality.有些东西似乎可以普遍预测幸福，比如最低限度的财富、人权和收入平等
On the other hand, there is important cultural variability in the pursuit of happiness. People from different cultures are not all striving for the same kinds of good feelings.另一方面，在追求幸福方面也存在着重要的文化差异。 不同文化背景下的人们并不都追求同样的美好感受
How does emotion occur according to the James-Lange Theory of Emotions?
our body responds to environmental stimuli by preparing us to react in order for survival
emotions are the physiological responses or “bodily reverberations”
情绪是身体信号，表现在身体状况中
each emotion word is the description of a different bodily state or process
How does emotion occur according to the Two-Factor Theory of Emotions?
CNS 无法这么快区分人们的所有情绪
Theory suggest: emotions are based on two factors → physiological responses and the interpretation of those responses.
Redirected the focus of emotions away from the physical body and into the mind.
人们通过观察自己所处的情况来解释自己的兴奋
如果相同的身体信息可以被解释为欣快感或愤怒——两种截然不同且相反的情绪——那么尽管与由于情绪状态不同，人们无法准确地意识到自己的身体感觉
the separate roles of sensation and interpretation could be identified only if they were disentangled
Experiment
interpretation of that sensation condition
Condition 1 研究人员通过用弹弓发射纸团、制作纸飞机、玩呼啦圈让参与者感到兴奋感(euphoria)
Condition 2 研究人员通过问一些粗鲁的问题让他们感到愤怒 (anger)
参与者应该将他们感受到的任何生理唤醒解释为由于他们对问题的愤怒而产生的
Physiological arousal condition
placebo condition
参与者被注射了生理盐水，并被如实告知这不会对他们的兴奋状态产生副作用
epinephrine-informed condition
epinephrine-uninformed condition
参与者注射了肾上腺素，但被错误地告知它不会产生任何增加兴奋感的副作用
Result
那些在肾上腺素不知情的情况下经历了最强烈的情绪：他们感到强烈的兴奋，但对此没有很好的解释。
只能解释为环境所造成的
处于欣快状态的人将他们的兴奋解释为感到欣快，而处于愤怒状态的人则将其归因于感到愤怒
情绪experience来自于参与者根据情况来解释他们的arousal
How do we compare the two theories of emotions?
James-Lange theory
emotions are largely based on specific physiological responses
emotion is driven by the evolution 进化论的驱动
没生理信号的话无法生存繁衍后代，我们都继承了这一点生理信号，
prove the university of emotional experience （generalized)
Two-factor theory
In addition to a physiological basis, emotions are constructed from the belief systems that shape people’s interpretations
这样的话不同文化会有很大的区别
People might interpret their physiological signals in different ways across cultures
What is the purpose of facial expressions? What are some evidences for cultural universality of facial expressions?
面部表情的意义:
1. facial expressions are a way to communicate with others
may be difference facial expressions depend on culture
- facial expressions often appear to be reflexive
很多时候面部表情会看起来在任何地方都表现的相同
EVIDENCE FOR CULTURAL UNIVERSALITY
Charles Darwin: facial expressions evolved as a product of natural selection
Paul Ekman and Wallace Friesen
让五种不同文化的人进行对于照片中情绪的识别
五种不同文化中的人们对于面部姿势所表达的感受表现出很大的一致性
（80-90%）
证明六种表情是 universality in facial expressions for emotions.
limitation
获得相似的反应因为这些照片 它们都是工业化的、有文化的文化，不同的参与者都接触过许多相同的媒体图像
Ekman another experiment（去证明这个experiment的limitation)
Fore people没有接触过我们的文化，但是在遇到与我们相同的情绪的时候还是会做出同样的facial expression
高兴微笑，悲伤皱眉
Six basic emotions
Happiness, surprise, sadness, anger, disgust, and fear
debate is over contempt, shame, embarrassment, and interest whether are universal
Pride expression (universal)
involves the whole body, including an erect posture, the head held high, a slight smile on the face, and arms extending away from the body or held akimbo 涉及整个身体，包括直立姿势、昂首挺胸、面带微笑、双臂伸出体外或呈叉腰状
What are some evidences for cultural variability of facial expressions?
On overage, people were about 9% more accurate in judging the facial expressions of 自己文化中的人
因此，某些面部表情和推断情绪之间的联系似乎是一种functional universal: 同样的表情是同样的emotion，但是degree of the expression is recognized varies.
The ability to recognize facial expressions in one’s own culture is fairly natural.
“Recognizing emotions from the eyes only”
People do a little better on this task when the subjects are from their own culture.
A stronger fear response when people look at fearful facial expressions on people in their own culture, as opposed to foreigners
人们最擅长识别那些与他们接触最多的人的情感表达
发现如果直男在现实生活中与男同性恋者有过接触，那么他们仅通过看脸就能更准确地判断男性的性取向
文化差异足够明显，以至于人们可以可靠地猜测那些表达情感的人的国籍，即使他们具有相当相似的文化背景 （猜测亚裔美国人 vs 日本人）
社会经济背景较低的人更能准确地识别面部表情中的情绪，这表明地位相对较低的人必须更加关注可能的想法和想法
Explanation of facial expression
观察眼睛从而辨别出一个人的隐藏情绪 （眼睛肌肉难控制）
了解某个人的情绪要观察他的嘴巴（嘴巴是最大的信息来源）
日本人的判断比美国人更容易受到照片上半部分（通过观察眼睛）的影响；美国人的判断更多地受到照片下半部分的影响（看嘴）
识别面部表情东亚人focus on the eye
日本动漫人物的眼睛通常比嘴巴大得多
What are display rules for emotions? Why do some cultures have more expressive display rules?
the culturally specific rules that govern which facial expressions are appropriate in a given situation, and how intensely they should be exhibited.
一些文化主张强烈的表达自己的情绪，但另外一些文化主张收敛但表达自己但情绪
Why do some cultures have more expressive display rules?
Immigration history explanation of display rules difference
美国这种由许多不同文化背景组成但国家 → heterogeneous cultures → 需要在交流中更加开放和精确才能被理解。
一个国家的移民历史越多样化，人们表达情感的表现能力越强
韩国这种比较homogeneous culture 人们擅长相互推断含义，而不需要明确的沟通
Influence on gestures and facial expressions
Ritualized displays
a facial expression in some culture, but not in other culture
印度人咬舌头表示尴尬
When we see someone’s facial expression, it is not always clear whether it’s a universal expression or one governed by cultural display rules.
Do people’s descriptions of emotional intensity differ?
The Americans reported feeling those emotions longer and more intensely than the Japanese did.
日本人表示自己根本没有感受到任何情绪的可能性大约是美国人的三倍
对于emotion，东亚人更少关注，也导致经历的情绪越来越少
The cultural display rules governing the deamplifying and masking of emotions in East Asia are also associated with East Asians experiencing fewer and less intense emotions than Americans. 在东亚，去放大和掩盖情绪的文化显示规则也与东亚人比美国人经历更少和更不强烈的情绪有关
Collectivistic文化可能强烈的情绪让群体里的人不好function
Expressing angry
具有敌对倾向的人患心血管疾病的风险增加因为敌对的人更需要抑制自己的愤怒从而加速心率
How do people express or experience anger differently?
Experiment 1
让参与者想象愤怒的场景
Result 如何回应
Chinese Canadians
认为这些场景比欧洲裔加拿大人更不容易激怒
采取策略减少他们对愤怒的反应 （分散愤怒）
Europeans Canadians
引发愤怒的事件最常见的反应是公开表达他们的愤怒
Experiment 2
华裔加拿大人和欧洲裔加拿大人接触到粗鲁且不专业的实验人员。根据自我报告问卷和血压读数的测量
Result
来自两个文化群体的参与者最初对令人不快的实验者表现出了相似程度的愤怒 (血压上升）
华裔加拿大人的血压恢复正常的速度比欧洲裔加拿大人要快得多
亚裔加拿大人的愤怒更轻且消退的更快，而欧洲裔加拿大人因不公开表达愤怒而产生了负面的生理影响
与美国人相比，东亚人的强烈情绪 was associated with fewer negative outcomes
and less positive association with positive emotion
东亚人在抑制情绪时较少出现神经反应，这表明他们这样做并不难
Apparently the connection between the expression of intense emotions and health is stronger in Western cultures than non-Western cultures.
How do people from different cultures express various kinds of emotions?
independent VS interdependent
Interdependent
aware of how events in the world affect others close to them as well as themselves
土耳其人更担心局势如何影响关系
Independent
how events might serve to differentiate them as individuals from others
Cultural Influence on Emotions
捍卫自己的荣誉对于土耳其人来说非常重要
feelings of anger and shame are more common in Turkey
而维护面子对于日本人来说至关重要
only shame is more common in Japanese, 因为维护面子不需要angry
Americans are more likely to experience situations that lead to anger
奥林匹克运动员描述获胜时的情绪
For Japanese, emotions are experienced more as interpersonal states that connect people to each other （提到关系的时候更激动）
for Americans, emotions are experienced more as personal states within individuals.（提到个人状态更激动）
Daily emotional experiences
Japanese who reported feeling a great deal of positive interpersonally engaged emotions also had more positive feelings 和别人关系越好情绪越积极
positive and interpersonally engaged→ positive emotion
Americans who felt a lot of positive interpersonally disengaged emotions had much more positive feelings overall 积极情绪主要在与其他人区别开来时产生
positive interpersonally disengaged→ positive emotion
Do people’s expression of emotions differ by languages?
Number of emotion words
英语有2000多个情感单词所以很容易感受到情感细微的变化
Chewong 人只有八个，只有两个对应Ekman的六种感情
但是对于情感单词较少的文化，他们只能感受到几种最基本的情感
Different Categorization of Emotion
e.g. Luganda speakers 不区分悲伤和愤怒
萨摩亚人用alofa表达爱和怜悯
许多其他语言中的情感也很难被英语描述因为英语没有这样的单词
e.g. 德语的目睹别人痛苦而愉悦感
日语的Amae通常涉及对亲密的人做出不恰当行为的倾向，作为一种表明关系有多secure
How do people view happiness?
Western → happiness was believed to be achievable through efforts to pursue a good life (对西方人来说很重要）
many other places 除了美国→ happiness was seen as largely the result of good luck
生活在happiness定义为好运的国家的人们表示，feel less happy than those happiness is not as luck
但是现在对于happiness, rate of happy nation dropped, but happy person increased
reflects happiness is an individual’s state in the US
What is subjective well-being? What are the factors contributing to subjective well-being?
存在文化差异
Scandinavian and Nordic countries have the highest score
former Soviet republics and some impoverished countries in Africa and South Asia have the lowest score （非洲贫困国家
Factors
1. Income Level
On average, people who live in countries that provide income opportunities to meet basic daily needs are considerably more satisfied than those who do not
more strong correlation in low income level region
一旦一个国家的平均GDP（国内生产总值）至少达到美国的40%，收入水平和主观幸福感之间就不再存在任何明显的关系
如果人们挣扎求生，金钱可以买到很多快乐，但如果他们的基本需求得到满足，金钱的影响就小得多
- Human rights protection
Countries that promote human rights the most generally have the happiest citizens
北欧很快乐，因为公民平等，权利不受威胁
Citizens of countries that abide more by the rule of law, and have lower rates of corruption（腐败）, tend to be happier - Individualism VS Collectivism
Life satisfaction can be obtained mostly by doing what a person would like to do, or by doing what a person thinks he or she should do
People in individualistic societies were far more likely than those in collectivist societies to base their life satisfaction on how many positive emotions they were experiencing.
Interdependent self people 如果能够达到他人的好人标准，就会对自己的生活感觉良好
集体主义文化中的人们比个人主义社会的成员更有可能通过社会参与来追求幸福
What are personal theories of a satisfying life?
Another key factor that influences people’s judgments of life satisfaction is their personal theory about how happy they think they should feel.
生活因为全是happiness还是有好有坏
Experiment
先记录每天的满意度再让他们回忆过去7天的满意度
（asian american vs european american)
Result
参与者对一周中每一天的满意度评价有多积极没有culture difference
但欧洲裔美国人回忆起他们的几周, 比实际情况要好，而亚裔美国人对于记忆中生活的满意度和他们当时的满意度没有太大区别
欧洲的回忆积极的多
Explanation of Why
人们对生活就应该是什么样子的看法不同
欧洲裔美国人的回忆是由他们认为生活应该普遍幸福的观点所塑造的
European Americans appear to be operating under an implicit theory that they should be happy
而亚裔美国人则认为生活是积极和消极经历的平衡
Happiness Theory
European American
their ideal life would be dominated by happiness
Asian American
emotional experience, like other aspects of life, should be balanced, not necessarily upbeat all the time
they can simultaneously experience both positive and negative emotions
与西方人相比，东亚人不太可能强调自己的积极情绪
Do people in different cultures intentionally choose things to make them happy?
Experiment1
学生被要求选择两种游戏， One was fun and enjoyable; the other could improve thinking skills and boost grades.
Result
欧洲裔加拿大人倾向于选择有趣的游戏，而亚裔加拿大人则更有可能选择有用的游戏
Asians might be less interested in positive emotional experiences
原因之一是感觉良好对他们的好处可能较少，对亚洲人来说，positive emotion不能预防抑郁
Depression difference
拥有许多积极情绪的欧洲裔美国人和西班牙裔美国人也报告称，他们的抑郁程度较少
而拥有许多积极情绪的东亚人与那些拥有很少积极情绪的东亚人一样容易患抑郁症
Experiencing negative emotions does not appear to have the same consequences across cultures
Experiment 2
Have russian vs american read vignettes, then 分析（reflect) 如何 make them feel upset vs 不分析
Participants were asked to indicate which of the vignettes more closely resembled their own coping tendencies
Russians were more likely than the Americans to identify with the subject who reflected on her feelings
Self-reflective Americans 比 不会Self-reflective American 更depress
Self-reflective Russian 比不会Self-reflective Russian 更不depress
Self-reflective Americans > Self-reflective Russian → depression
These results suggest that dwelling on one’s negative emotions, although common in Russia, does not lead Russians to feel more depressed, as it does for Americans.
What is ideal affect? How does this concept differ for Westerners vs. East Asians?
Ideal affect
the kinds of feelings people desire, or emotions they want to have, so they structure their lives in order to maximize the opportunities for experiencing them.
American
positive emotions that are high in arousal
喜欢更明显的positive emotion
小孩也更喜欢表情兴奋的角色
East Asian
ideal affect contains positive feelings that are low in arousal
对于positive emotion的表达不是那么明显
Religion affect
Christian texts → high-arousal states were encouraged more
Buddhist texts → low-arousal states were encouraged more
欧洲裔美国人通常更倾向于参与导致高唤醒积极状态的活动 （户外运动，响亮的音乐）。相比之下，东亚背景的人想要轻松、低唤醒的积极状态 （观光，安静的音乐）
Summarize Westerners vs. East Asians preferences for ideal affect or emotions in general.
For Westerners:
Interpersonally disengaging emotions feels especially good.
Subjective well-being is associated with positive feelings.
People operate under the implicit theory that opportunities for happiness should be maximized.
Positive emotions protect against depression.
High-arousal positive emotions are preferred.
For East Asians:
Interpersonally engaging emotions feel especially good.
Subjective well-being is associated with appropriate role behaviors.
People operate under the implicit theory that a balance between positive and negative emotions and experiences is natural.
Positive emotions do not necessarily protect against depression.
Low-arousal positive emotions are preferred.
