Chapter 8 Motivation Flashcards
What is self-enhancement?
Self-enhancement is a motivation to focus on and elaborate more about one’s strengths than on one’s weaknesses.
- diminishing stuff bad about us
As with most psychological phenomena, it had primarily been studied with Western populations, which suggested the motivation was very pronounced.
What are some evidence for North-American Self-Enhancement?
Most North Americans possess high self-esteem.
Most North Americans view themselves in unrealistically positive terms.
94% college professor think they are better than average
Most North Americans use self-esteem maintenance strategies to discount any negative feedback that they might encounter
Is self-enhancement a basis human need or is it culturally learned?
Some evidence for the latter is that the motivation has been increasing over time
Positive Views Have Been Increasing Over Time in the USA
The Rosenberg Self-Esteem scale is hitting the ceiling, almost perfect score
In US, tests have been easier, more A’s in US now, more feedback
What is the cultural difference in self-enhancement?
East Asians Self-Enhance Less than North Americans
Example Study - Students at Japanese and American university clubs were asked to evaluate themselves and four clubmates.
We compared how positively people evaluated themselves, compared with how positively their four clubmates evaluated them.
Self-evaluations that were more positive than evaluations by one’s peers were evidence for self-enhancement.
Self-evaluations that were more negative than evaluations by one’s peers were evidence for self-criticism.
US的64% evidence of self-enhancement
84% of Japanese were self-critical
What does the result of meta-analysis show about the cultural differences in self-enhancement?
Meta-analysis of western and eastern sample
find that the strength of the self-enhancement in western is d=.86, and for EA it was -.02 (self-criticism)
To summarize, there are large cultural differences in self-enhancement motivations.
Whereas Westerners show consistent and strong evidence for self-enhancement, East Asians do not.
In many studies, East Asians show evidence for self-criticism.
Do East Asians enhance their groups?
One alternative explanation is that East Asians enhance their group selves rather than their individual selves. 另一种解释是，东亚人增强的是群体自我，而不是个人自我。 （后面的实验证明这个理论是错误的）
We explored this in a study by comparing how people evaluated their universities
We contrasted two rival universities in Vancouver and in Kyoto:
In Vancouver we assessed how UBC and SFU students evaluated both UBC and SFU.
In Kyoto we assessed how Ritsumeikan and Doshisha students evaluated both Ritsumeikan and Doshisha.
- Evaluations of Euro-Canadians:
Students from both schools evaluated UBC more positively than SFU.
However, UBC students viewed the gap between the schools to be larger than did students from SFU.但是，UBC 的学生认为学校之间的差距要大于 SFU 的学生
This still indicates an overall university-enhancing bias.这表明总体上存在着大学提升的倾向（认为不仅自己好，自己的学校也更好）
- Evaluations of Japanese:
Students from both schools evaluated Doshisha more positively than Ritsumeikan.
However, Doshisha students viewed the gap between the schools to be smaller than did students from Ritsumeikan.
This indicates an overall university-critical bias.表明学生对大学的总体评价存在偏差
What is another alternative explanation to the cultural difference in self-enhancement?
Another alternative explanation is that these studies might just tap into what people say, and not what they really feel. 另一种解释是，这些研究可能只是了解了人们的说法，而不是他们的真实感受。
Perhaps modesty norms make it difficult for East Asians to express their self-enhancing feelings.也许是谦虚的规范使东亚人难以表达自我提升的感受
That is, the cultures might have similar self-enhancing motivations, but self-presentation norms conceal this. 也就是说，两种文化可能具有相似的自我提升动机，但自我表述规范掩盖了这一点
We conducted a study to investigate whether cultural differences in self-enhancement generalized to their private thoughts. 我们进行了一项研究，以探讨自我提升方面的文化差异是否会泛化到他们的私人想法中
Example Study：
Canadian and Japanese first completed 20 IQ test items on a computer.加拿大人和日本人首先在电脑上完成了 20 个智商测试项目 (made up)
They were told that the second part of the study investigated their ability to make decisions with limited information.他们被告知，研究的第二部分将调查他们在信息有限的情况下做出决定的能力
Judge whether their performance in part 1 was worse or better than average student from their school
show then individually score (eg: your is 47, others is 43)
The decision they were to make is whether their performance across all 20 IQ items is better or worse than that of the average student from their school.
他们要做的决定是，他们在所有 20 个智商项目中的表现是优于还是劣于他们学校的普通学生
让他们根据仅仅一个score，去猜测他们还是别人的score was higher
Half were assigned to receive scores better than the average student, and half were assigned to receive worse scores. 一半人被指定获得比普通学生更好的分数，一半人被指定获得比普通学生更差的分数
Participants viewed their performance alongside that of the average student for each of the individual IQ items, one item at a time. 在每个智商项目中，受试者逐项查看自己的表现与普通学生的表现
They were asked to make a decision about their overall performance (across all 20 items) as soon as a pattern was evident to them.一旦发现明显的模式，他们就要对自己的总体表现（所有 20 个项目）做出决定
让他们as soon as they see a pattern 谁的高，让他们就去决定
DV: 他们要看多少轮才能发现pattern
Study results:
Canadians needed to view more trials before being able to conclude that they had done worse than average than when they concluded they had done better. 加拿大人需要观看更多的试验，才能得出他们做得比平均水平差的结论，而不是得出他们做得比平均水平好的结论。 （questioning their number, 我怎么可能会差一些，harder to do the math number）
Japanese showed the opposite pattern. They were more easily convinced that they had done poorly than that they had done well.
日本人的情况正好相反。 他们更容易相信自己做得不好，而不是做得好
It is difficult to explain these results as a function of self-presentation as there was no one to present to.
Why are East-Asians self-critical?
East Asians show more concern for maintaining “face.” 东亚人更注重维护 “面子”
Face is the amount of social value others give you if you live up to the standards associated with your position. 面子 “是指如果你达到了与你的职位相关的标准，别人就会给你多少社会价值
Face is more easily lost than it is gained, so it is crucial to attend to potential shortcomings. 面子 “失之东隅，收之桑榆，因此关注潜在的缺点至关重要
Self-criticism allows for self-improvement by directing attention to those areas where there is the most room for improvement. 自我批评可以引导人们关注最有改进余地的方面，从而实现自我完善
more face I can get by promotion (如果把自己说得太好了，实际上没有，那就丢了面子）
Maintaining face entails two key points:
Attending to public information about the self 关注有关自我的公共信息
what others are thinking of them
Being more sensitive to losses than gains.对损失比对收益更敏感
East Asian self-evaluations should be influenced more by what others think of them.
How do people attend to public self-information? How are people’s self-evaluations affected by other’s knowledge of their performance?
One study assessed how much people’s self-evaluations are affected by other’s knowledge of their performance. 一项研究评估了人们的自我评价受他人对其表现的了解程度的影响
Hong Kong and American participants took a bogus creativity test that was evaluated by two computer programs. They all received two scores: 92nd and 53rd percentiles.
香港和美国的参与者参加了一个假的创造力测试，该测试由两个计算机程序进行评估。他们都得到了两个分数： 第 92 和 53 名次 (average)
Through an apparent mixup, another subject saw one of their scores.由于明显的混淆，另一名受试者看到了他们的其中一个分数
Participants then rated their own performance. 然后，参与者对自己的表现进行评分
Self-Evaluations Affected by Other’s Knowledge
Hong Kong participants viewed themselves more positively if someone had seen their high score than if someone had seen their low score. 如果有人看过自己的高分，香港参赛者对自己的评价会比别人看过自己的低分更积极
American participants’ evaluations were not affected by knowing that someone else had seen their scores. 美国受试者的评价并不会因为知道别人看过自己的分数而受到影响
Hong Kong self-evaluations are influenced by what information is known by others
香港人的自我评价受他人所知信息的影响.
被看到了low分的香港自我打分更低（他人看法），但是对美国人没有太大区别
What is brand consciousness?
To enhance one’s face, people strive to present themselves in ways that are publicly recognized as desirable.
Luxury brands communicate high status.奢侈品牌传递着高贵的身份
East Asia accounts for about half of luxury brand purchases东亚约占奢侈品牌购买量的一半
Why are people more sensitive to losses than gains?
Cultures vary in the extent to which they’re attentive to approaching good things (promotion), or to avoiding bad things (prevention). 不同的文化在多大程度上注重趋利（促进）或避害（预防）
universal even in animal
This cultural difference extends broadly beyond self-relevant information.
east asian focus much more on prevention, western focus more on promotion
One study compared how helpful people viewed book reviews from Amazon.com and Amazon.co.jp
The researchers coded book reviews in terms of the amount of positive and negative information that it contained.研究人员根据书评中包含的正面和负面信息量对书评进行了编码
focus on good or bad about the code
The helpful reviews for American books contained about the same amount of positive and negative information.
The helpful reviews of Japanese books contained more negative than positive content.
Unhelpful reviews, in contrast, didn’t show this pattern.
Japanese find critical feedback more helpful than do Americans.
对亚洲人避雷更重要
A desire to maintain face is associated with attention to public information about the self and a prevention orientation. 维护面子的愿望与关注自我的公共信息和预防导向有关
Why are East Asians less motivated to focus on positive self-aspects compared with Westerners?
They are more likely to view mistakes as corrrectable
What is the sense of control and what are two ways to seek control?
People from different cultures vary in terms of how they get control.
How you seek control depends on the theories that you have about both yourself and the social world.
Two key ways to seek control are evident in how people might build a stone wall.
- Building a Stone Wall
左边很乱的石头堆起来的墙preserve integrity, but cost is the shape (society is influenced by individuals)
右边很整齐的石头堆起来的墙need to change inorder to fit into the wall (individuals is shaped by the society in order to fit in)
What does it mean by primary control vs. secondary control?
“Primary Control.”
People with independent views of self tend to have entity theories of self, but incremental theories of the world. 对自我有独立看法的人往往对自我有实体理论，但对世界有增量理论
People strive to change circumstances to fit and match their desires. 人们努力改变环境，使之符合自己的愿望
“Secondary Control.”
People with interdependent selves tend to have more incremental theories of self, but entity theories of the world. 自我相互依存的人往往对自我有更多的增量理论，但对世界有实体理论。
People strive to adjust themselves to accept circumstances as they are. 人们努力调整自己，以接受环境的现状
比如朋友叫你看电影，你说好啊那就是我想要做的事情，你改变了自己的原先的想法去适应环境
Secondary control strategies are more common in non-Western contexts than in Western ones. 在非西方环境中更常见
Primary control strategies are more common in the West than elsewhere.
In collectivistic societies, groups are the primary focus, rather than individuals, and groups should be seen as more powerful. 在集体主义社会中，群体而非个人是主要关注点，群体应被视为更有力量
individualistic sees individual more powerful
When a negative event happens, who is to blame? The individual or the group?
American newspapers referred more to the individuals than to their companies.
美国报纸对个人的提及多于对公司的提及
Japanese newspapers made more references to the companies than to the individuals.日本报纸对公司的提及多于对个人的提及
Groups are a key source of agency in Japan, whereas Americans consider agency more in individuals 在日本，团体是代理权的主要来源，而美国人则更多地考虑个人代理权
How do people make choices as a way of primary control?
A way that primary control is perhaps most directly evident is when people make choices. 主要控制权最直接的体现方式可能就是人们做出选择的时候
Making choices, the freedom to choose, is emphasized more in North American contexts than it is elsewhere.在北美，人们比其他地方的人更强调做出选择，即选择的自由
North Americans are more used to making choices than are people in other cultures.与其他文化背景的人相比，北美人更习惯于做出选择
比如cali girl点星巴克事贼多，她们就喜欢这样
How do people from various parts of the world make choices?
Americans Prefer More Choice Options than Do Europeans
Indians and Americans Make Choices Differently
When given a list of objects to indicate which ones they like, Americans and Indians are equally quick in indicating their preferences. 如果给美国人和印度人一张物品清单，让他们选择自己喜欢的物品，那么美国人和印度人同样能迅速做出选择。
When given a list of objects to choose from, Indians take significantly longer in making choices than do Americans 当给定一个物品清单供选择时，印度人做出选择的时间明显长于美国人
Preferences vs. Choices:
Preferences seem to be more closely related to choices among Americans than Indians.与印度人相比，美国人的偏好似乎与选择更密切相关。
In one study people were shown a set of 5 pens and were asked to rate how much they liked them.在一项研究中，研究人员向人们展示了一套 5 支笔，并要求他们对这些笔的喜爱程度进行评分
They later chose one of the pens to take home with them.之后，他们选择其中一支笔带回家
Indians were less likely to choose their top preference than Americans 与美国人相比，印度人不太可能选择他们的首选
Do cultures differ in what they view to be a choice?
Experiment 1
One study had Americans and Indians go through a series of set actions (such as picking up one of two pens to sign one of two consent forms). 一项研究让美国人和印度人完成一系列设定的动作（比如拿起两支笔中的一支，在两份同意书中的一份上签字）
After they were asked to list all the choices that they had made in the experiment. 之后，他们被要求列出在实验中做出的所有选择
Americans viewed more of their behaviors as choices than Indians (Savani et al., 2010). 美国人比印度人更多地将自己的行为视为选择
Experiment 2
Another study had Americans and Indians describe the most recent time they engaged in some actions (e.g., purchasing a computer).另一项研究让美国人和印度人描述他们最近从事某些行为（如购买电脑）的时间
They indicated whether they thought the action was a choice, and how important the action was to them. 他们表示是否认为该行动是一种选择，以及该行动对他们的重要性。
did you choose that action, how important
The more important the action, the more likely Americans were to view it as a choice行动越重要，美国人越有可能将其视为一种选择。.
For Indians, the more important the action, the less they were likely to view it as a choice.对于印第安人来说，行动越重要，他们就越不认为这是一种选择
Are there costs involved in making choices, even for North Americans?
Americans provided with free samples from 24 kinds of jam or 6 kinds of jam, buy more jam when there are only 6 kinds 美国人在获得 24 种果酱或 6 种果酱的免费样品后，会在只有 6 种果酱时购买更多的果酱
more choices lead you feeling exhausted
Making choices depletes self-regulatory resources做出选择会消耗自我调节资源
Americans persist less, and make more errors, if they have made a series of choices 如果美国人做了一系列选择，他们坚持的时间会更短，犯的错误会更多
Class Ted Talk: Sheena Iyengar, the Art of Choosing
Asian Americans children did best with anagrams when their mothers made the choices, whereas anglo-Americans did best with anagrams when themselves chose
Some people may think there are too many choices in the current world. People could become overwhelmed by making choices.
American parents felt more negative emotions after they made their own decisions on removing their infants’ life support machines, whereas French felt a little bit better when the doctors made the choices for them
How do people’s motivations to fit in or stick out differ?
A key goal in interdependent cultural contexts is to achieve belongingness with others. This is facilitated by trying to fit in. 在相互依存的文化背景下，实现与他人的归属感是一个关键目标。 努力融入他人有助于实现这一目标
In independent cultures, people are motivated to highlight their distinctiveness, which fosters a sense of independence 在独立文化背景下，人们的动机是突出自己的独特性，从而培养独立意识
What happens to people when they have an opportunity to conform, but they have to go against what they believe? Asch’s conformity study
Had participants provide answers to an unambiguous task after several confederates gave incorrect answers. 让受试者在几位同伴给出错误答案后，再回答一项无歧义的任务
After hearing other people provide the wrong answer, most American participants (approximately 3/4) will also give the wrong answer at least once on subsequent trials 在听到其他人给出错误答案后，大多数美国参与者（约 3/4）在随后的试验中也会至少给出一次错误答案
This study has now been replicated in 17 countries.
Everywhere there is considerable conformity.
The more collectivistic the country, the more conformity there is.
Collectivists are especially conforming with other ingroup members.
How would East Asians and Euro-Americans respond to alternatives that were either in the majority or the minority 东亚人和欧美人会如何应对占多数或占少数的替代品？
In one case participants had to rate which shape they viewed as more attractive
在一个案例中，参与者必须评定他们认为哪种形状更有吸引力
East Asian participants tended to rate the common shape as more desirable, whereas the Euro-Americans rated the uncommon shape as more desirable
东亚参与者倾向于认为普通形状更有吸引力，而欧美参与者则认为不常见形状更有吸引力
In another study, people were given a choice of a pen to choose from after completing a survey. 在另一项研究中，人们在完成一项调查后可以选择一支笔。
East Asians tended to choose the majority-colored pen, whereas Westerners tended to choose the minority-colored pen东亚人倾向于选择多数人颜色的笔，而西方人则倾向于选择少数人颜色的笔
What are the differences in advertising themes in Korea and the US?
American ads more frequently contained themes of uniqueness than fitting in.
美国广告更经常包含独特性主题，而不是融入主题
you are special
Korean ads more frequently contained themes of fitting in. 韩国广告则更多地包含合群的主题
9 out of 10 are using xxx
The cultural messages that people encounter in their daily lives differentially emphasize the value of fitting in or sticking out. 人们在日常生活中接触到的文化信息不同程度地强调了 “合群 “或 “出众 “的价值
Define self-enhancement, self-esteem, and self-serving bias.
Self-enhancement
People apparently have a strong need to view themselves positively.
North Americans have this tendency
Self-esteem
the positivity of your overall evaluation of yourself. When asked, most North American people report having high self-esteem
Self-serving bias
the tendency for people to exaggerate their positive characteristics.
夸大自己的积极特征
Thing that helps sustain unrealistically positive self-assessments (让你维持不切实际的积极自我评估的情况：
People rarely encounter concrete information about such abstract characteristics, so there’s no evidence to prove that one is not above average.
What are some ways people can use to boost their self-view?
- Downward social comparison
comparing your performance with that of someone who is doing even worse, thereby making your xxx seem not as bad
相反Upward social comparison
Comparing your performance with someone who is doing better than you
Usually painful - Compensatory self-enhancement
You acknowledge the poor grade you got but then think about your excellent clarinet-playing skills
Focusing on how good you are at something unrelated to your setback can compensate for the pain of your failure - Discounting
reducing the perceived importance of your poor performance
为了缓解成绩不佳带来的痛苦，你可以对自己说一些话，“谁真正关心化学 - External attribution
interpreting the reason for your low grade as being caused by something outside yourself
教授不好
相反Internal attribution
interpreting the reason as being caused by factors within yourself
我不够聪明
*Basked In the Reflected Glory
Emphasize our connection to successful other people makes us feel better about ourselves by sharing their warm glow
in independent culture比如ubc的足球队赢了我就会说我们足球队·，而不是他们怎么怎么样
Describe research findings on the cultural variations in self-enhancement motivations.
Experiments Result:
给小孩看八个孩子的照片，问他们谁更聪明，谁是好人：来自两个文化群体的孩子都积极看待自己种族的孩子
European American children → 欧洲裔美国人的选择率更高，92% 的人选择照片中的积极特征
Mexican American children → 墨西哥裔美国人的选择率则为 82%。
The Native American students listed fewer than half as many positive statements about themselves as the European American students did. ( self-enhancement is linked with independence)
Western VS non Western
虽然 93% 的欧洲裔加拿大人有很高的自尊，但只有 55% 左右的日本人有这样的自尊
Likewise, a tendency for self-serving bias is far less common for East Asians than for Westerners
The American students listed more success memories than failure memories
Japanese students listed slightly fewer success memories than failure ones
Self-enhancing tendencies in East Asian people
- lack of enhancement motivation
- When facing failure:
American →compensatory self-enhancement + external attribution (失败的时候认为是外部) + discount 任务的重要性+ focus on their own sport teams honor
Japanese → less compensatory self-enhancement + more external attribution (成功的时候认为是外部) + less discount更重视任务 + more strict to their own support team
more upward comparison
东亚人的self-critical view generalize from individual to their groups
What is the endowment effect?
the tendency for people to value objects more once they own them, and have endowed them with their own positive qualities (拥有东西后更加重视和给予高评价）
The endowment effect is much stronger in Westerners than in East Asians,
three explanation
because Westerners tend to be self-enhancing
East Asians value a different set of traits from those that have been explored in research thus far
East Asians could be faking modesty（social norm导致的假谦虚）
What are some historical origins of self-enhancement in various cultures?
Parenting
European American parents focused on their children’s previous successes
Taiwanese parents were more likely to talk about their kids’ past transgressions （违规）
View of Self-esteem
European American parents viewed self-esteem as central to child rearing—a positive quality that enhanced children’s development
Taiwanese parents, in contrast, had little to say about the words that most closely approximated the concept of self-esteem
北美学校更多的灌输自尊
Religion
早期新教徒支持Predestination
对一个人是否是选民的任何怀疑都被认为是这个人不是选民的证据，因此人们变得非常积极地将他们生活中的事件解释为上帝眷顾他们的迹象，在天堂或地狱度过永恒的区别足以激励人们以有利的眼光来解释他们的处境。有人认为，这样一来，自我提升的动机就增强了
Culture
Individualism
当一个人的信念开始转变为“我就是我所拥有的一切”时，就会更需要积极地看待自己
It would be extremely difficult to achieve goals of 自给自足 if one did not have a strong, positive sense of self
individualism increases → increase in self-esteem and self-enhancement
The percentage of people who view themselves as better than average has grown significantly over the past 50 years
people are encountering more positive feedback than in the past，more easy to get A
What is face and what is the first characteristic of face?
Face （面子）
the amount of social value others give you if you live up to the standards associated with your position
The higher your social position, the greater the amount of face available to you.
In collectivism culture
What matters is not how positively you think of yourself, but whether valued others think you’re doing well
First Characteristics
Face is difficult to enhance and easy to lose.
面子由社会地位决定，如果不符合standard of social role, also lose face
人们会小心翼翼防止自己的行为导致别人reject them
Self-improvement
identifying potential weaknesses and working on correcting them
最大限度 minimize the chance of others seeing them as having lost face.
Prevention orientation
kind of defensive, cautious approach to protect oneself from negative outcomes
人们避免失败 （为了面子）
more in East Asian
日本的书评比美国的书评包括更多的prevention orientation
把精力放在自己失败的事情
Promotion orientation
a concern with advancing oneself and aspiring for gains
人们试图获得成功和好的东西
美国的书评包括更多的Promotion orientation
把精力放在自己做得好的事
Persistence Experiment （创造力测试）
日本和加拿大人收到failure和success的反馈：
加拿大人在成功后坚持的时间比失败后的时间长的多
promotion orientation → 对于自己擅长的事情更感兴趣
Japannese在失败后坚持的时间比成功后的时间长的多
prevention orientation → 对于他们做的不好的事情更感兴趣
Culture Result
Self-improving perspective ( American) → less anxiety and depression
东亚父母更关注孩子的缺点，西方父母更关注孩子的优点
东亚人比西方人更关注行动背后的过程（做出改进）而不是目标（成为一个优秀的人）
What is the second characteristic of face?
Face is maintained only when a positive evaluation is made by others.
East Asians pay attention to the perspective of others more than Westerners do
How can people take to ensure that others think of them positively?
people can adopt a prevention orientation to identify any weaknesses that might jeopardize their face （购买高地位的物品）
present oneself to others in a way that would enhance one’s face
比如买名牌 → 东亚人更多 → 为了获得社会认可
Compare and contrast the incremental theory of the world vs. the entity theory of the world.
Incremental theory of the world
our environment is flexible and responsive to our efforts to change things.
比喻：一个表面光滑的城墙是通过对于每个个体石头的雕刻塑造的 → 这意味着每个个体是可以塑造的 （人们做出调整来适应他们的社交世界）
Entity theory of the world
we see our environment as fixed, and making changes is beyond our control.
比喻： 凹凸不平的石墙是因为每个个体石头没有被改变所以导致城墙凹凸不平 → 这意味着每个个体是无法被塑造的 （世界改变来适应成员的行为和方式）
What are primary and secondary controls? How do East Asians and Westerners differ in which type of control they choose?
Achieving sense of primary control (internal locus of control)
The effort to shape existing realities to fit their perceptions, goals, or wishes
also called internal control (你可以改变现实来完成你的愿望）
Achieving sense of secondary control (external locus of control)
Attempting to align themselves with existing realities, leaving the circumstances unchanged but exerting control over their psychological impact.
当你和一群朋友去吃午饭，大家决定吃披萨；你开始觉得披萨正是你午餐想吃的。您的愿望和目标会根据您的环境最有可能提供的情况进行调整
East Asian Culture
collectivism → have a flexible and incremental view of themselves
people to be quite willing to adjust themselves to fit in better with the demands of their society.
more secondary control （认为个人更加灵活，调整自己去适应社会）
Western Culture
individual has the potential to shape the world to meet his or her own needs and desires.
more primary control
more connection between lack primary control and anxiety
e.g. 世界是上帝给予亚当控制的。基督徒更有可能使用 primary control 来尝试通过祈祷来改变事情
Self-concept是不变的
美国人被问到为什么选择健美操课程会说是因为这个课程适合他们想要运动的时间, 而日本人会说是因为这个课程他们调整了自己的schedule
Experiment
回忆自己影响或者调整自己的场合
美国人能够更好地回忆起自己影响他人的情况，而不是回忆起自己适应他人的情况 （primary control is strong)
日本则相反 (feeling more powerful in secondary control)
How is group agency demonstrated in the case of primary vs secondary controls?
Secondary control is effective for the function of a group, perceiving the group as agents to exercising primary control.
报纸如何报道股票交易丑闻
American → 倾向于从个人交易者的问题来探讨丑闻 → 倾向于让个人对于事件负责
Japanese → 将报道重点放在了可能导致这一丑闻发生的组织固有的问题上 → 倾向于让群体对于事件负责
How do people make decisions in individualistic vs. collectivistic cultures?
Having the freedom to make choices is something that is valued everywhere
but still have difference
一个人的生活 vs 篮球比赛
Individualism
自己做出对于影响他们生活的重大决定
Collectivism
许多重要事情的决定不只自己，而是由别人比如父母帮忙一起做出人生的重大抉择
individuals tend to identify with their group’s goals
because the ones who are making the decisions care a great deal about them and know a lot about their personal needs and the family’s needs
Different view of choice
让人们列举出过去有人试图影响他们的决定的反应时：印度人认为是为了他好，美国认为是自私
Indian
little emphasis on making choices in life（不那么认为做决定很重要）
less freedom of choice in their life
Decision-making appears to be more difficult for Indians than for Americans
Indians don’t respond as negatively when deprived of the opportunity to choose
Different Meanings of Choice（pencil experiment）
Americans see more of their actions as reflections of their choices
在实验中做相同的行为，美国人表示他们做出的选择几乎是印度人的两倍
Importance of choice
行动越重要，美国人就越有可能将其视为个人选择
行动越重要，印度人就越不可能将其视为个人选择
在美国生活的越长，越可能将自己的行为作为个人选择
Connection with personal preference
When Americans have an opportunity to choose something, they almost always select the one they prefer
Indians are less likely to select their favorite option, which their choices are guided by other considerations and authority’s expectation
What do experiments on European Americans and Asian Americans show people’s preferences of making choices?
three conditions
学生被允许做出一些与他们在游戏中的成功无关的选择（personal choice)
学生们的飞船是由outgroup members所选出来的 (outgroup choice)
学生门的飞船是有班上大多数同学选出的 (ingroup choice)
Result
欧洲裔美国学生更多地尝试玩自己做出选择的游戏，而不是玩其他人做出选择的游戏。
亚裔美国学生更多地尝试玩由内群体成员为他们做出选择的游戏 (因为ingroup值得信赖），而不是由外群体成员做出选择或他们自己做出选择的游戏。
see ingroup’s choice as a way of belonging.
在美国，人们更喜欢50种口味的选择（values choices)
但是太多选择会产生negative effect
How is communism related to learned helplessness?
Communism
One consequence of communism is that it weakens the link between an individual’s efforts and their outcomes.
lost of primary control
west西柏林的孩子更相信自己可以靠自己取得好成绩
learned helplessness
A person feels powerless and unable to control or avoid unpleasant events, leading to stress and even depression
east东德人比西德人更多的抑郁症因为they lack primary control
一半共产一半民主
What role does socioeconomic background play in people’s choices?
收入和控制感成正相关
Working-class people
less money and have fewer options because of their socioeconomic status
less control over their circumstances.
Experiment
two condition
参与者可以选择任何他们想要的笔
参与者选择了他们想要的笔，但是被实验人员强制替换了
Result
工人阶级参与者对他们在两个condition下获得的笔几乎和在自由选择条件下一样满意。
中上阶级在他们的选择被剥夺时满意度要低很多
Discussion
upper-middle-class Americans
are raised to favor freedom of choice and to express themselves through their own decisions
learn to respond negatively when they believe they don’t have any choice in a situation.
Working class
因为人生中碰到的很多东西都是无法控制的所以他们在遇到困难时更强调自身韧性
更能接受最后结果不是他们想要的
What is conformity and what are some social costs of not conforming?
Conformity 随波逐流
usually seens as negative in Western culture
The desire to fit in
参与者可以单独判断线的长度，但是当group 给出错误答案的时候他们也会给出错误的答案
Social Cost of not conforming
people might laugh at you
People tend to take an active dislike to those who deliberately don’t fit in
get criticized
Collectivism
We would expect people from cultures that are more socially cohesive to be more willing to conform
集体主义更加顺从
more motivated to achieve harmony and a sense of belonging
more conformed than Western Culture
西方文化会认为high conformed children 更加不聪明
Independent and interdependent views of self:
Experiment 1 (color of pen)
美国人更有可能选择数量占少数颜色的笔 regardless of colour
因为他们希望体现自己的独特感
东亚人更有可能选择数量占多数颜色的笔
因为东亚人希望表达自己的归属感
Experiment 2
美国中产阶级比工人阶级更喜欢体现出自己的独特性
Advertisement
Uniqueness messages were more common in American ads, and conformity messages were more common in Korean ads.
Ads targeting working-class Americans → emphasize connecting with others than Ads targeting middle-class Americans → emphasized standing out and being distinctive
Which of the following statements is most accurate?
a. There is very little cross-cultural variation in self-esteem.
b. In collectivistic cultures, interdependence is positively associated with self-esteem, but in individualistic cultures, independence is positively associated with self-esteem.
c. Independence is positively associated with self-esteem.
d. Interdependence is positively associated with self-esteem.
e. Self-esteem is higher in children than adults in non-Western cultures, and higher in adults than children in Western cultures.
c. Independence is positively associated with self-esteem.
How do primary and secondary control among Japanese and Americans differ?
a. Americans feel primary control in American-made situations and secondary control in Japanese-made situations.
b. Japanese feel more powerful in secondary control situations than in primary control situations.
c. Japanese feel more powerful in Japanese-made primary control situations than they do in American-made primary control situations.
d. Japanese recall more primary control situations than secondary control situations.
e. Americans and Japanese feel more powerful in primary control situations than they do in secondary control situations.
e. Americans and Japanese feel more powerful in primary control situations than they do in secondary control situations.
