Chapter 6 Self Flashcards
What is the definition of self-concept?
How we perceive ourselves, and understand our identity plays a crucial role in how we think about many things. 我们如何看待自己，如何理解自己的身份，对我们如何思考许多事情起着至关重要的作用
What are some functions of self-concept?
- directing what information we should attend to, 引导我们关注哪些信息
- how we derive meaning from events, 我们如何从事件中获得意义
- the kinds of relationships that we have, 我们的人际关系
- our emotions, 我们的情绪
- what we are motivated to work towards. 我们努力的动力
Textbook functions:
investigate the difference between… (cognition, motivation, emotion, and relationship)
information we have about ourselves
directs our attention to information considered relevant
shapes the concerns we have
guides our choice of relationship partners and the kinds of relationships we maintain
influences how we interpret situations and emotions
What does the study done on the American college students vs. various groups in Kenya show about people’s self-concepts?
Results:
48% of American describe their traits, attitude, abilities
Only 2% Masai and Samburu describe themselves this way
Over 60% of Masai and Samburu describe themself reflecting social identity, roles, and memberships
Undergraduates Americans tends to describe more about inner self (personality, ability).
Workers and people in Masai and Samburu without good education more describe roles in a community (sister, a student in UBC)
差距在幼儿园就出现了
What opinion does the seminal paper by Markus and Kitayama (1991) hold about the independent vs. Interdependent views of self?
The paper argued that much of what is known in social psychology has been studied with people who share a primarily distinct view of self - an independent self.
他们认为，社会心理学中的大部分研究都是以具有独特自我观–独立自我–的人为对象的
In much of the non-Western world, in contrast, an interdependent self is more common. 相比之下，在非西方世界的许多地方，相互依存的自我更为常见
What does the chart of independent view of self show? (refer to lecture slide for picture)
- Individual identity is distinct from any others, not overlapping with any social relationships 个人对圆圈不与其他重要关系的圆圈重叠
大X都是individual （比如attitude，personal traits，preferences，opinions，and attitudes）
- Outgroup and ingroups boundary is fluid, can come in and out (shown by the dotted lines)
- independent people view ingroup much closer, but don’t view them fundamentally distinct way
- Identity is experienced as largely independent from others. 身份体验在很大程度上独立于他人
- Important aspects of identity are personal characteristics.
身份的重要方面是个人特征 - Identity remains largely constant across roles and situations. 在不同的角色和情况下，身份基本保持不变
- Considerable fluidity between ingroups and outgroups 内部群体和外部群体之间有相当大的流动性
What does the chart of interdependent view of self show? (refer to lecture slide for picture)
- Circles of self overlaps considerably with the border of the circles of their significant relationships
- they closely connected with others and are not experienced as distinct and unique
- 大X lies in the intersections between individuals and their significant relationships
- their identities are grounded in their relationships with others (a father, a daughter, friend, student)
smaller x are about self - Outgroup is fixed
Not easy to enter the ingroup (shown by the fixed line) - Individual’s identity is importantly interdependent with others.
个人的身份认同与他人相互依存 - Key aspects of identity include roles, relationships, and memberships.
身份的主要方面包括角色、关系和成员资格 - As roles change across situations, identity is also somewhat fluid across situations.
由于角色在不同情况下会发生变化，身份认同在一定程度上也会在不同情况下发生变化
在学校我是学生，在家我是daughter - Clear distinction between ingroups and outgroups. 明确区分内部群体和外部群体
What are the study results of comparing Chinese and American students thinking about how well adjectives describe themselves, their mothers, or another target?
They did this while in an fMRI scanner, participants were asked to consider how well
a number of trait adjectives characterized themselves or their mothers.
Figure shows the differences in brain activation when people thought of themselves compared with when they thought of their mothers. 图中显示了人们想到自己时与想到母亲时大脑激活的差异
English native speaker:
- different regions of brain activation for describing themselves and their mother
- see themselves distinct from mother
Chinese:
- same regions of brain activation for describing themselves and their mother
- meaning that significant ingroup relationships form a core part of the self-concept for those with an interdependent view
Is there a relationship between social class and self-concept?
Within countries groups also vary in their self-concepts.
在国家内部，各群体的自我概念也各不相同
The wealthier and better-educated groups tend to be more independent than the poorer and less-educated groups. 富裕和受教育程度较高的群体往往比贫穷和受教育程度较低的群体更加独立
Many of the cross-cultural findings discussed in this course also hold for comparisons of wealthy and poor within the West. 本课程中讨论的许多跨文化研究结果也适用于西方国家的贫富比较
Studying university students means our samples are more independent than if we targeted other groups. 研究大学生意味着我们的样本比针对其他群体的样本更加独立
Describe the study on the consistency of roles in Japanese and American students.
The interdependent self should be more contextually variable than the independent self. 与独立的自我相比，相互依存的自我应更具情境可变性
If the identity of the interdependent self is importantly grounded in roles, than across situations, identity should vary. 如果相互依存的自我的身份认同是以角色为重要基础的，那么在不同的情境下，身份认同也应有所不同
if your identity depends on others, student vs daughter, you feel like a different person
In one study, Japanese and American students completed the Twenty Statements Test in different situations 在一项研究中，日本和美国学生在不同的情境下完成了 “二十项陈述测试”
There were 4 test-taking situations: alone, with peers, in a professor’s office, and in a large class. 共有四种测试情境 IV：单独测试、与同学一起测试、在教授办公室测试和在大班测试
The key variable of interest was how similarly positive were people’s self-descriptions across situations. DV: 我们感兴趣的关键变量是在不同情境下，人们的自我描述有多相似
American Data
American self-descriptions were highly similar across different situations.
美国人在不同情况下的自我描述高度相似
不管在哪个context
Their self-descriptions were also uniformly positive.
他们的自我描述也一致是积极的
Japanese Data
Japanese self-descriptions varied significantly across different situations.
日本人的自我描述在不同情况下有很大差异
They were more positive when alone and most critical when with their professor.
他们在独处时更积极，而与教授在一起时则最挑剔
Their self-descriptions were also less positive than the Americans.
他们的自我描述也不如美国人积极
Describe the study in which Canadian participants indicated whether their memories contained 1st person or 3rd person imagery for a variety of events.
In some of the events they were the center of attention (e.g., your birthday party) and in some they were not the center of attention (e.g., watching a movie with friends).
在一些事件中，他们是焦点（如您的生日聚会），而在另一些事件中，他们不是焦点（如与朋友一起看电影）
Asian Canadian more third person perspective when you are the center of attention events
因为你在乎别人怎么看你， attending what others think about you currently, how you appear to others, fitting in, how am I doing right now.
The amount of third-person perspective when you are in the center of attention, minus first person perspective when you are not at the center of perspective
Why do we see these cultural differences of perspectives?
Being a member of an interdependent group makes it more important for one to understand how others view them.
It is others’ opinions about one that especially matter for one to be successful in interdependent contexts
What does research on self-awareness reveal about how people oscillate between two states of awareness?
In a state of subjective self-awareness people are taking on the perspective of a subject - an “I.” They are in the position of being the judge and can evaluate themselves according to their own standards. 在主观自我意识状态下，人们以一个主体–一个 “我 “的视角来看待问题。 他们处于评判者的位置，可以按照自己的标准来评价自己
I am the one looking out the world, I am the subject of the world, evaluating the world
In a state of objective self-awareness, people experience themselves as an object - a “me.” They are aware of being evaluated by the standards of others. 在客观自我意识状态下，人们把自己当作一个客体–一个 “我”。 他们意识到自己被他人的标准所评价
我是一个被评价的，me，not I, others standards
We go back and forth between these 2 situations
Do East-Asians view themselves in an objective self-awareness?
If East Asians tend to habitually consider themselves from the perspective of others, they may tend to view themselves more often in a state of objective self-awareness.
如果东亚人倾向于习惯性地从他人的角度考虑自己，那么他们可能更倾向于在客观的自我意识状态下看待自己
As such, manipulations of objective self-awareness should have less impact on East Asians. They are habitually considering themselves in terms of how they appear to others. 因此，操纵客观自我意识对东亚人的影响应该较小。 他们习惯于从自己在他人眼中的形象来考虑自己
Objective self-awareness is often manipulated by putting people in front of mirrors, where they can see themselves as the world sees them.客观的自我意识往往是通过把人放在镜子前，让他们看到世界眼中的自己来操纵的
how worlds sees me
Describe one example study done on Japanese and American students evaluating themselves with a measure of actual-ideal self-discrepancies
A larger discrepancy indicates a more self-critical view. 差异越大，表明自我批判性越强。
Half completed the questionnaire in front of a mirror. The other half did not (see Heine et al., 2008). 一半学生在镜子前完成问卷。 另一半学生没有这样做
Mirrors and Self-Discrepancies
Americans had larger self-discrepancies (i.e., are more self-critical) when in front of a mirror than when not. 与不照镜子时相比，美国人照镜子时的自我怀疑程度更高（即自我批评程度更高）
become more self-critical
Japanese were unaffected by the mirror. 日本人则不受镜子的影响
suggest they have always been objective self-awareness
When Americans were in front of a mirror they seemed to think of themselves in ways more similar to the of Japanese. 当美国人面对镜子时，他们似乎会以更接近日本人的方式来思考自己
What does this study result suggest about people in Asia and people in the West?
Suggests people understand themselves in different ways across cultures.
An “Outside-In” perspective is more common in Asia, whereas an “Inside-Out” perspective is more common in the West.
What are the differences between incremental vs. entity theories of self?
Incremental theories of self involve the belief that abilities are malleable and are capable of being changed, with efforts. 增量自我理论认为，能力是可塑的，通过努力是可以改变的
Entity theories of self involve the belief that abilities are largely fixed, and reflect innate features of the self. 自我实体理论则认为，能力在很大程度上是固定的，反映了自我的先天特征
People with more interdependent selves have more incremental and less entity-based theories of self.
How do the Indians and Americans differ in their belief in the universal potential of intelligence?
Indians are more likely than Americans to believe that anyone can become highly intelligent. 印度人比美国人更容易相信任何人都可以成为高智商的人
When Americans are led to believe that high intelligence is widely attainable, they become more supportive of gov’t policies to distribute income more evenly. 当美国人相信高智商是可以普遍实现的时候，他们就会更加支持政府的政策，使收入分配更加均匀
当他们读了essay关于每个人都可以有机会变聪明，他们更加支持policy distribution
When people have different theories of the nature of abilities, they respond differently to feedback about their abilities.
Describe the study done by Steven Heine et al. (2001) on Japanese and American students, to test out entity/incremental theory’s influence
We conducted a study where we had Japanese and American students take a bogus creativity test which was rigged such that everyone did poorly (Heine et al., 2001).
我们曾做过一项研究，让日本和美国学生参加一个假的创造力测试，结果发现每个人的成绩都很差
Example item: Which word goes with the following three? meal deal peg ______ (答案是square)
After they had found out that they had done poorly they were left alone with a second version of the test and their persistence on the test was assessed.当他们发现自己做得很差时，他们会独自面对第二版测试，并对他们在测试中的坚持性进行评估
知道自己做得很差，他们会多likely to 坚持
The second test came with one of three sets of instructions which were the independent variable. 第二次测试有三套说明 on the top
One set of instructions explained that performance on the creativity test was based on an incremental theory - efforts improve one’s score. 其中一套说明解释说，创造力测试的成绩是以渐进理论为基础的–努力提高自己的分数
A second set of instructions provided an entity theory - some people are just naturally good at the test, and some people aren’t. 第二套说明提供了一种实体理论–有些人天生就擅长测试，而有些人则不然。(entity theory)
A third condition was a control condition and contained no instructions.
The dependent variable was how long people would persist after receiving these different instructions.第三个条件是对照条件，不包含任何指导。 因变量是人们在接受了这些不同的指导后能坚持多长时间
What were the results of the previous described study? For Americans
For American participants, they persisted as long when they received entity instructions as when they received no instructions. This suggests that they the entity instructions conveyed no new information to them. 对于美国学员来说，当他们接受实体指令时，他们坚持的时间和没有接受指令时一样长。 这表明，实体指令并没有向他们传递新的信息。
告诉entity or not 美国人一样，证明entity instruction alreadty in 美国人的mind
In contrast, the incremental instructions affected their behavior and made them persist more.相反，递增指令影响了他们的行为，使他们坚持得更久
告诉他们后期可以
What about the Japanese students?
For Japanese participants, they persisted as long when they received incremental instructions as when they received no instructions. This suggests that the incremental instructions conveyed no new information to them. 对于日本学员来说，当他们接受递增指令时，他们坚持的时间与没有接受指令时一样长。 这表明增量指令没有向他们传递新的信息。
In contrast, the entity instructions affected their behavior and made them persist less. 相反，实体指令影响了他们的行为，使他们坚持的时间减少
Overall, Japanese persisted longer in the face of failure than Americans, which suggests that they have more incremental theories. 总体而言，日本人比美国人在失败面前坚持的时间更长，这表明他们拥有更多的渐进理论
When Japanese are given American ideas (i.e., entity theories) they act more like Americans. 当日本人获得美国人的想法（即实体理论）时，他们的行为更像美国人
And when Americans are given Japanese ideas (i.e., incremental theories) they act more like Japanese. 而当美国人得到日本人的想法（即增量理论）时，他们的行为更像日本人
People think of each other in terms of what?
People everywhere do think of each other in terms of underlying personalities.
This appears to be even more true among Westerners (e.g., recall Twenty Statements Test)
How universal is personality structure? (referring to the Big 5)
Students in 50 different cultures have completed the Big 5 questionnaire, and a highly similar factor structure has emerged in each culture.
suggest universal structure
However, this research has all been based on translations of English personality terms. Would the same set of personality factors emerge from indigenous personality traits? 然而，这些研究都是基于英语人格术语的翻译。 本土人格特质是否也会产生同样的人格因素呢？
他们当地自己的描述
Investigations in a number of cultures, including Spain, Greece, the Philippines, and China have found most of the Big 5 factors, but also some additional factors.
对包括西班牙、希腊、菲律宾和中国在内的一些文化进行的调查发现了五大因素中的大部分因素，但也发现了一些额外的因素
What is the Niche-Diversity hypothesis?
The results do not support the Big 5 well in small-scale subsistence societies. This may reflect that only complex societies lead to the Big 5, however, the quality of the data is poor and difficult to interpret. 这可能反映出只有复杂的社会才会产生大 5 因子，但数据质量较差，难以解释
Societies with more niche may encourage people to cultivate skill sets and traits
利基较多的社会可能鼓励人们培养技能和特质
in more complex society, more deliver ways to be a person, lead to more personality
Societies with more niches have larger number of underlying personality factors
有更多利基的社会有更多潜在的人格因素
低niches 的地方都在努力自己为了生活，没有那么多机会explore不同的career，connection，和接触新的事物
If societies continue to get more complex, perhaps we will see evidence for more personality traits (but highly speculative)如果社会继续变得更加复杂，也许我们会看到更多人格特质的证据（但这只是高度推测)
when environment give you more opportunity to look for, it encourage you to you develop unique skills and factors
In summary, personality structure appears to be largely similar around the world, with a possible exception of small-scale societies that remains somewhat unclear.总之，世界各地的人格结构似乎大体相似，但小规模社会可能是个例外，这一点尚不清楚。
Moreover, there may be some significant cultural variation depending on the language that personality traits are derived from. 此外，由于人格特质来源于不同的语言，可能存在一些显著的文化差异
What is the twenty-statements test? What is an experiment on the cultural differences between Americans and Kenyans?
I am xxxx
influenced by culture
Most widely used cross-cultural psychological measure
Experiment:
How African and US undergraduate describe themselves
Result: 48% of American describe their traits, attitude, abilities
Only 2% Masai and Samburu describe themselves this way
Over 60% of Masai and Samburu describe themself reflecting social identity, roles, and memebrships
但是大学生之间，差距更小
American focus on personal characteristics, which is also seen in the Western culture.
差距在幼儿园就出现了
Describe the independent self-concept model.
- Independent View of Self
- A self-concept model in which is thought to come from inner attributes
- Reflect a unique essence of the individual, and that remain stable across situation
and throughout the lifespan.
Refer to the picture of the independent self model:
- Individual does not overlap with other borders
a. 个人对圆圈不与其他重要关系的圆圈重叠 - 我对自己的identity是实线，不是来自于和他人的互动，也是稳定的
a. 我是谁不会因为场合和谁在一起而改变
a. independent people experience their identity distinct from their relationship - 大X都是individual （比如atitude，personal traits，preferences，opinions，and attitudes）
- Fluidity between ingroup and outgroup
a. independent people view ingroup much closer, but don’t view them
fundamentally distinct way
Describe the interdependent self-concept model.
Interdependent View of Self
- self as being defined on social relationships and roles, and behavior depends
on the perceptions of others’ thoughts, feelings, and actions
- focused on how they are connected with others
- Interdependent Self concept
- individuals perceived as participants in a larger social unit
- their identity depend on their position relative to others, and their relationships with them
Refer to the diagram:
- Circles of self overlaps considerably with the border of the circles of their significant relationships
a. they closely connected with others and are not experienced as distinct and unique - 大X lies in the intersections between individuals and their significant relationships
a. their identities are grounded in their relationships with others (a father, a daughter, friend, student)
b. smaller x are about self - 个人圆圈是虚线
a. self identity is fluid and permeable
b. personal experiences change as circumstances change (我在家是一个父亲，在学校是一个学生） - 内部群体圆圈是实线
a. b. People do not easily become ingroup members, nor do close relationships easily turn into outgroup relationships
How do people in interdependent cultures view their ingroups vs. outgroups?
Ingroup relationships serve to direct appropriate behaviors, and people have several obligations toward these relationships
有义务和指导他们 （serious role）
ingroup-outgroup boundaries are stable
not easy to become a ingroup members
hard for ingroup members become outgroup one
Ingroup are extension of themselves
Evidences：
比如日本人对于内群体的语言义务习俗都非常不同
对识别亲密朋友的情绪很准确
Trusts and commitment
- confined into ingroup
- the stronger the bonds among members within a group, the weaker the ties between groups (less willing to cooperate with outgroup members)
How do people in independent cultures view their ingroups vs. outgroups?
- view himself functioning largely separately from the social environment
- willing to form new connection and maintain larger networks
- less distressed when relationships fade over time
Evidences：
识别陌生人的情绪更准确
Trusts and commitment
- higher general trust toward strangers
How do people differ in individualistic vs. collectivistic cultures? How do SES play a role in this difference?
Collectivistic (80% world population): Latin america and Asia, southern Europe, eastern Europe and South Pacific
- 高SES在日本更加集体主义
- suggest high SES associate with dominant cultural value
Individualistic: US and Western European nations
- 在美国Hawaii的集体主义比起来是最高的
- 高SES比低SES的人更加个人主义
个人主义和经济增长有关
- 第一代美国大学生（贫穷）收到interdependent的鼓励后发挥更好
- Continuing-generation students completed slightly more anagrams following an independent message
Are there gender differences in independent vs. interdependent self-concepts?
One Study:
让北美和亚洲的男女各自完成一系列的题，categoried into 4 underlying factors
collectivism
agency
assertiveness （自信）
relatedness
Result
女性在relatedness比男性高，其他没有区别
Women are apparently more interdependent than men only with respect to their attention to others’ feelings and concerns. On the other factors associated with individualism and collectivism, gender differences are not apparent.
What are some clear cultural differences in the way people view issues of gender equality and gender norms?
1 (传统）to 7 （非常平等）
在荷兰芬兰和德国评分高 and在印度巴基斯坦很低
不管在哪一个地方男女对性别平等的看法都是相似的
但是男性的传统观点始终高一点点
基督教认为平等，但是伊斯兰教更传统
Geographical Location
Northern countries更提倡平等
Southern countries更加传统
城市化越高–》更平等
Agriculture lead to gender norms:
plow cultivation require muscular strength (done by man)
shifting cultivation done by woman (also can take care of children)
那些很早就用plow的国家，现在女性也工作的更少
Describe the idea of cognitive dissonance.
- distressing feeling we have when we observe ourselves behaving inconsistently, against our own sense of self-consistency.
How to change?
1. acting more consistently
2. dissonance reduction
(change our attitude)
One way to avoid cognitive dissonance is to make decision去合理化自己的选择，减少不和谐
专注于自己选择的优点，贬低自己rejected的alternative
rationalization
- happens after making choice, because that’s when the potential inconsistencies emerge
不同文化的人是否用similar kind of dissonance reduction?
Describe experiments done on this topic.
日本人和加拿大人
想让他们rate CD，然后送给他们他们排名相同的俩CD，让他们选一个，之后再让他们rate 一次CD
Hypothesis: if people are rationalizing, they will prefer their chosen CD is more, and like their rejected CD
Result：加拿大人clearly showed rationalizing their decision, suggest they engage in postrationalizing dissonance
日本人do not rationalize their desicion, do not care if their decision were consistent or not
Different Motivation for East asian to rationalize decisions
东亚人rationalize decisions they make for others, suggest a motivation to have their behaviour consistent with other’s expectations.
日本人为别人点菜的时候更多rationalize
East asian concern with being consistent with others, american aspire self-consistency
波兰人（比较集体主义），会试图保持与他人行为一致，美国人会试图与自己过去行为保持一致（比如告诉你你之前都捐款了，以此鼓励你下次继续捐钱，保持自我概念的一致）In this study, Poles were more likely to comply with a marketer’s request if their peers (classmates) had done so earlier, and Americans
tended to comply if they themselves had complied with the marketer’s previous request
Individual Self-concept 的人会在不同情况下保持一致
因为他们认为这能带来好处
Being consistent in west不会被认为是hypocrit
对于东亚人来说，只要within roles是consistent的就好了
How does self-awareness differ in terms of “I” and “me”? What are experiments on this concept showing?
Subjective self-awareness
a person consider self from inside out with the perspective of the subject
“I”
Objective self-awareness
person consider self from the outside in, with perspective of how we appears to others and evaluates
“me”
Experiment 1:
hong kong and US undergraduate students
让他们做creativity test，然后告诉他们有一个validated的program和一个new program会evaluate 他们的score
每个人都得到了一个一般和很好的分数，然后故意让他们知道别人看到了他们的分数（knew which score)
然后让他们自己evaluate自己的creative level
Result: 美国人不管别人看到他的好成绩还是坏成绩，他们对自己的评估都是consistent的 （subjective standard)
香港人因为知道自己的成绩被看到了，所以会根据别人看到好成绩还是坏成绩去挑战自我evaluation
Experiment 2:
Experiment
recall memory when they were the center of attention
亚洲人回想过去都是第三人称，北美的都是第一人称
证明北美更加从自己的mind去think themselve
Are interdependent people more accurate in their self-views?
预测自己会给多少糖果，和实际给了多少糖果
The children from individualistic cultures donated fewer candies than they had earlier predicted, whereas the children from collectivistic cultures donated about the same number of candies as they had earlier predicted.
证明集体主义文化的孩子对未来预测更准确，他们更客观，也正是人们所期望的
人们看镜子and 录音带听到自己的声音时会变得more objective self-awareness
Put interdependent individuals in front of mirror
No influence
suggest他们不管看不看镜子，都是用objective self-awareness (本身habit 就一样， 自我批评）
What are two implicit theories on the nature of self?
Self-concept is shaped by the belief we take for granted, without too much active thinking
- Incremental theory of self
our abilities and traits are malleable and can be improved
这类人会更努力去学习，认为有改进空间
80%亚洲学生的观点
日本的考试考努力程度，法考每年只有2.5%的通过率，大部分人第一次都会fail，就连成功的都是已经考了四次左右的 - Entity theory of self
our abilities are fixed and innate, cannot be changed.
认为不管怎么努力都没用（本身就是这），遇到失败会归于自己智力问题
考天赋程度
法考的通过率高很多，每年通过66%的考生，其中75%第一次考的人就过了
How generalizable is the Five Factor Model cross-culturally?
The Five Factor Model
simplifies all traits that overlaps
factor analysis
identifying group that are alike or different
five factor model of personality
openness
conscientiousness
extroversion
agreeableness
neuroticism (unstable and unpredictable)
Suggest all personality characteristics reflects some combination of these 5 core traits
Does not account for all personality variation
Generalization of Big five factor model
evidence suggest everyone naturally falls to these cluster
Limilations:
these terms are all english personality terms, so an we expect the same pattern is questions were developed from different culture
eg: in China, interpersonal relatedness is not correlated with any of the big five, suggest 6th personality traits in china
eg. in Pilipino, negative valence and temerament is not there as well.
Research are using WEIRD sample to test
when using Tsimane and non industrialized sample, big five does not support their traits
Differences within US
north→ extroversion, conscientiousness, and agreeableness are high
western→ openness is high, neuroticism is low
northeastern→ neuroticism high and conscientiousness low
Extraverted people→ enjoys ocean, introverted prefer in-mountain regions
SOME LIMITATIONS
Subjective self-reports have methodological challenges to validity
self-report does not match with data
people evaluate themselves based on comparison
