Chapter 9

Question 1

Diacritical marks

Answer 1

Symbols that indicate the correct pronunciation of letters in a particular word.

Question 2

Articulation

Answer 2

The production of a language’s sounds.

Question 3

Recursion

Answer 3

The capacity of any one component (eg. phrase or sentence) to contain any number of similar components. Recursion is also the ability of something to refer to itself (the recursion recitation paper that literally referred to itself and caused a recursion loop). Recursion in language allows there (theoretically) to be an infinite number of sentences possible, and it is possible to construct a sentence with an infinite number of other sentences embedded in it.

Question 4

Psycholinguistics

Answer 4

The branch of cognitive psychology interested in how we comprehend, produce, acquire, and represent (in the mind) language.

Question 5

Phoneme

Answer 5

The smallest unit in language. Phonemes are combined to form morphemes.

Question 6

Morpheme

Answer 6

The smallest unit in language that carries meaning.

Question 7

Syntax

Answer 7

The rules that govern how words and sentences are structured.

Question 8

Semantics

Answer 8

The meaning of words and sentences.

Question 9

Tree diagram

Answer 9

A description of a process that proceeds from one level at which a number of relationships are simultaneously present to other levels at which those relationships are ordered serially (listening to music and putting into words that “the music is loud”).

Question 10

Language

Answer 10

Open-ended verbal communication that consists of all possible sentences.

Question 11

Speech

Answer 11

Those sentences that are actually spoken; only a small subset of language.

Question 12

Phrase structure rules

Answer 12

Rules describing the way symbols can be rewritten as other symbols. Think of tree diagram, with sentence of Noun Phrase (NP) and Verb Phrase (VP) at the top and going down to form a sentence like “The girl drives a car.”

Question 13

Grammatical transformations

Answer 13

Rules operating on entire strings of symbols to convert them to new strings. Ex. Boswell admired Johnson transformed to Johnson was admired by Boswell. This is a top-down process based on previous rules and assumptions.

Question 14

Competence vs performance

Answer 14

We may have an internalized system of rules that constitutes a basic linguistic competence, but this competence may not always be reflected in our actual use of the language (performance) or in our ability to put coherent sentences together. Performance is more based on memory and situational understanding.

Question 15

Deep and surface structure

Answer 15

The sequence of words that make up a sentence constitutes a surface structure that is derived from an underlying deep structure. This is why we can have ambiguous sentences, like time flies or fruit flies.

Question 16

Innateness hypothesis

Answer 16

The hypothesis by Chomsky that children innately possess a language acquisition device that comes equipped with principles of universal grammar.

Question 17

“Poverty of the stimulus” argument

Answer 17

The argument that the linguistic environment to which a child is exposed to is not good enough to enable language acquisition on its own. This argument has not been proven. It is difficult to disprove the argument but there is considerable evidence now that children are given much more data in support of their language than was previously suspected.

Question 18

Language acquisition device (LAD) and universal grammar hypothesis

Answer 18

The hypothesis that children possess a language acquisition device containing general principles that apply to any natural language (universal grammar), like noun and verb phrases, and how they are arranged.

Question 19

Minimalism

Answer 19

The belief that linguistic competence has only those characteristics that are absolutely necessary. The current version of Chomsky’s innateness hypothesis and poverty of the stimulus argument. The idea that we don’t have anything extra that we don’t need in language.

Question 20

Parameter-setting hypothesis

Answer 20

The hypothesis that language acquisition involves the setting of various parameters contained within a universal grammar (e.g. position of verb in relation to object). A parameter is a universal aspect of language that can take on one of a small set of possible values. Essentially universal grammar has switches, and some are turned a certain way for one language, and another way for learning another language.

Question 21

Concealing function hypothesis

Answer 21

The hypothesis that language is a kind of code, and that the parameters set for one language serve to conceal its meanings from the speakers of another language.

Question 22

Mirror neurons

Answer 22

Neurons that fire not only when performing an action, but also when observing an action. Broca’s area in monkeys contains motor neurons that fire not only when the animal makes grasping movements, but also when it observes other animals making those movements.

Question 23

Sensory-Motor Systems

Answer 23

Systems that perceive and produce speech sounds.

Question 24

Conceptual-Intentional Systems

Answer 24

Systems that allow us to grasp the meaning of speech and to formulate and act on complex plans. This system allows us to conceptualize ideas and act on them.

Question 25

Uniquely Human Mediation System

Answer 25

The system that may be unique to us in which we can use symbols recursively and combine them infinitely. It enables the construction of an infinite number of possible expressions of the conceptual-intentional system to b realized as sentences expressed by the sensorimotor system. It lets us translate thought into speech.

Question 26

Parental reformulations

Answer 26

Adult reformulations of children’s speech. They are negative in that they inform children that they have made a mistake and positive in that they provide examples of correct speech.

Question 27

Syntactic development

Answer 27

Development of the ability to organize words into grammatical sentences. This is affected by the way their teachers speak, as well as their parents and those around them.

Question 28

Given-new contract

Answer 28

A tacit agreement whereby the speaker agrees to connect new information to what the listener already knows.

Question 29

Code model of communication

Answer 29

A model of communication based on the information-processing theory that we actively select information to be processed in our brains and aren’t just passive in that processing. The listener must decode the signal of the words spoken by the speaker to arrive at the thought that was intended to be communicated. For successful interpretation the speaker and listener must share understanding of the situation. Ex. Coffee would keep me awake is different in certain circumstances.

Question 30

Inferential model of communication

Answer 30

A model of communication based on Grice’s inferential theory in terms of intentions and inferences where a speaker intends to inform a listener and the listener infers what the speaker intends. Ex. Were you raised in a barn? You can infer something from that sentence.

Question 31

Co-operative principle

Answer 31

The assumption that the speaker intends to say something concise, truthful, relevant, and unambiguous.

Question 32

Conversational maxims

Answer 32

Say no more than is necessary (maxim of quantity); be truthful (maxim of quality); be relevant (maxim of relation); and avoid ambiguity or be clear (maxim of manner). Listeners assume that speakers follow these maxims.

Question 33

Figurative language

Answer 33

Various figures of speech, such as metaphor and irony.

Question 34

Pretense theory of irony

Answer 34

When speaking ironically, people are only pretending to mean what they say.

Question 35

Standard theory of irony

Answer 35

Listeners initially take the ironic statement literally, but soon realize that the speaker can’t mean it literally and reach the conclusion that it is the opposite of what they said. Not proven though because people comprehend metaphorical utterances as fast and automatically as literal ones.

Question 36

Hesitation pauses

Answer 36

Pauses in speech, often characterized by disfluencies such as um or uh. It seems as though they serve a communicative function. They notify the listener that the speaker has detected a minor (uh) or major (um) problem while attempting to produce the appropriate response, and we seem to know how long it’ll take us to retrieve the response even before we retrieve it. More pauses in humanities profs than Science ones because more words and synonyms to choose from.

Question 37

Egocentric speech

Answer 37

Speech that does not take the listener’s perspective into account. As we age, egocentric speech declines, although its been argued that it becomes inner speech as we get older and becomes important in regulating thought.

Question 38

Inner speech

Answer 38

Speech for oneself that regulates thought. It can be rich and really helps us process the world and it convey the personal meaning of words rather than the conventional meanings. Inner speech is externalized when we say brr, because we only say it in front of others. Or when we try to get other’s attention without explicitly asking for it. It is also huge in planning cognitive operations. We use to organize and plan our thinking.

Question 39

Zone of proximal development

Answer 39

Defined by Vygotsky as “the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem-solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem-solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers.” Essentially what they can do with assistance now, and tomorrow they’ll be able to do it on their own. Children learn language this way. The zone of proximal development involves giving someone a task just a little more difficult
than what they can do already.

Question 40

Metalinguistic awareness

Answer 40

The ability to talk about language itself, without worrying about what it refers to.

Question 41

Literacy

Answer 41

The ability to read and write; sometimes extended to include the metalinguistic ability to talk or write about the text itself and deeper meanings behind it. Competence in talking about talk, about questions, answers, metalanguage, etc.

Question 42

Dyslexia

Answer 42

A reading disorder, ranging from difficulty learning to read and spell to the loss of those abilities.

Question 43

Surface dyslexia

Answer 43

A form of dyslexia affecting only the ability to recognize words as entire units; the ability to read words letter-by-letter remains intact.

Question 44

Phonological dyslexia

Answer 44

A form of dyslexia affecting only the ability to read letter-by-letter; the ability to recognize words as entire units remains intact.

Question 45

Dual route theory

Answer 45

The theory that there are two separate pathways for reading, one for comparing words to a mental dictionary and another for converting letters to sounds and stringing the sounds together to make words.

Question 46

Print exposure

Answer 46

The more print and books someone is exposed to, the better their literacy and cognitive skills. Print exposure makes an independent contribution to cognitive skills, over and above general intelligence, and exposure to actual books is better, not magazines which elicit shallow processing.

Question 47

Idea density

Answer 47

The number of distinct ideas present in a sentence or paragraph.

Question 48

Sapir-Whorf hypothesis

Answer 48

The hypothesis that two languages may be so different from one another as to make their native speakers’ experience of the world qualitatively different. Hardline theory of this would say that those whose
language does not have past-tense verbs won’t be
able to process or even think about things in the
past. Not supported by research, but the effects on
cognitive processes by different language (linguistic relativity) is definitely supported.

Question 49

Linguistic relativity

Answer 49

The notion that two languages may be so different from each other as to make their native speaker’s experience of the world quite different from each other. In English we think of form + substance. Mass nouns denote formless substances and we need a form to make it coherent (a glass of water, not just water). Other languages have very specific words that are linked; form and substance are not separate. Or think of the Inuit words for snow. They see it differently, partly because they know it better. But that language in turn preserves and even enhances the knowledge of it in a society.

Question 50

Polysemy

Answer 50

The existence of multiple meanings for one word, like pot for example. Other language are much less polysemous than English.

Question 51

Basic-colour terms hypothesis (Berlin-Kay order)

Answer 51

The hypothesis that there is an invariant sequence regulating the emergence of colour terms in any language. It is a universal thing. Black, white, red, green yellow, blue, brown, etc. in that order. If a language has three colours it would be the first three and so on. Doesn’t seem to be true though… language does seem to affect how we see colour… what is a qualitative distinction for one culture is only a different shade for another. Colours that aren’t easily named are also harder to remember it seems.

Question 52

Opponent process theory of colour vision

Answer 52

The hypothesis that colour vision is based on three pairs of antagonistic colours: green-red, blue-yellow, and white-black. When one is suppressed we see the other more clearly. Doesn’t seem to be true however.

Question 53

Intrinsic frame of reference

Answer 53

Spatial relationships are based solely on the relationships between the objects being described. Saying the man is at the chair’s back.

Question 54

Relative frame of reference

Answer 54

Spatial relationships are described relative to an observer’s viewpoint. Saying the man is to the right of the chair.

Question 55

Absolute frame of reference

Answer 55

Spatial relationships are described in terms of an invariant set of coordinates. Saying the man is north of the chair. We have seen that language can actually affect the way we see and represent objects in space. Languages without relative frames of reference tend to see the world and represent it from an absolute frame of reference rather than a relative one.

Question 56

Support for animal language (Koko)

Answer 56

Penny Patterson taught Koko to speak sign language and Koko does it very well. She looks into people’s eyes and feels them out. Gorillas have their own gestural system already and so the sign language was built on top of that. Koko was able to play hide-and-seek, or “quiet-chase” with Michael, another younger gorilla. Koko seems to feel emotions…. She is able to feel guilty and anger and sadness and happiness, as shown with her seeing a kitten in a book and eventually loving a little kitten. Even when the kitten was killed she signed that it was sad and bad. Koko started to want a baby and she was even trying to teach her gorilla dolls the first three signs she has learned. She can also somewhat understand certain English words it seems. And she has combined certain signs to make new ones… like finger-bracelet for ring or eye-hat for mask.

Question 57

Evidence against animal language (Koko)

Answer 57

The fact that gorillas have that innate affinity of gestures makes it less likely that other animals can truly have language the way we do… also the way language was taught to her was very slow and purposeful. It took years to learn just tens or hundreds of signs… humans just pick up far more complex language and words and meanings without having to be taught in a focused way. Koko can do many amazing things in the ways she communicates, but she cannot even put language together in the right order always and only has about 500 signs she uses regularly. It is very impressive, but she still can only really communicate at a very low level compared to average human language, and Koko does not think about herself or why things happen, she cannot wonder about theoretical or bigger meaning of life questions or question why things are the way they are. That is what makes humans and our language special. Also these are primates, and most animals cannot even come close to the sign language the gorillas have, never mind actual language that humans have. Communication is very different from language for these animals.

Question 58

Mondegreen

Answer 58

Very popular misheard lyrics in songs!

Question 59

Scaffolding

Answer 59

Scaffolding is how much social support children get when they are trying to obtain that next level. Certain cultures are much more interactive with their children than others.