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General Ecology > Chapter 9 > Flashcards

Chapter 9 Flashcards

1
Q

Haplodiploidy

A

sex-determination system where males develop from unfertilized eggs and females develop from fertilized eggs

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2
Q

males develop from unfertilized eggs and are

A

haploid

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3
Q

females develop from fertilized eggs and are

A

diploid

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4
Q

sexual reproduction

A

a reproduction mechanism in which progeny inherit DNA from two parents

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5
Q

a reproduction mechanism in which progeny inherit DNA from two parents

A

sexual reproduction

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6
Q

gonads

A

primary sexual organs in animals

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7
Q

how are sexual gametes produced

A

through meiosis

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8
Q

what does meiosis result in

A

haploid cells containing a single full set of chromosomes

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9
Q

what do haploid gametes fuse together to produce

A

diploid zygote

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10
Q

asexual reproduction

A

reproduction mechanism in which progeny inherit DNA from a single parent

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11
Q

reproduction mechanism in which progeny inherit DNA from a single parent

A

asexual reproduction

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12
Q

a form of asexual reproduction in which an individual is produced from the nonsexual tissues of a parent

A

Vegetative reproduction

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13
Q

Vegetative reproduction

A

a form of asexual reproduction in which an individual is produced from the nonsexual tissues of a parent

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14
Q

clones

A

individuals that descend asexually from the same parent and bear the same genotype

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15
Q

individuals that descend asexually from the same parent and bear the same genotype

A

clones

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16
Q

binary fission

A

reproduction through duplication of genes followed by division of cell into two identical cells

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17
Q

parthenogenesis

A

asexual reproduction in which an embryo is produced without fertilization

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18
Q

asexual reproduction in which an embryo is produced without fertilization

A

parthenogenesis

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19
Q

what results in clones

A

when germ cells develop directly to egg cells

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20
Q

what results when germ cells undergo partial or complete meiosis

A

genetically variable offspring

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21
Q

benefits of parthenogenesis

A
  1. reproduction during times of scarcity

2. genetic stability in constant environments

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22
Q

disadvantages of parthenogenesis

A

limited genetic variation through recombination and mutations (low adaptability in unstable environments)

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23
Q

costs of sexual reproduction

A
  1. sexual organs need energy and resources

2. mating behaviors need time and energy, increase risk of herbivory, predation, and parasitism

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24
Q

cost of meiosis

A

the 50% reduction in the number of a parent’s genes passed on to the next generation via sexual reproduction versus asexual production; occurs because sexual genes are haploid

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25
Q

what is the cost of meiosis counterbalanced by

A

hermaphroditism

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26
Q

hermaphroditism

A

an individual possesses both male and female gametes

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27
Q

how can the costs of sexual reproduction be offset

A

if the male helps the female take care of offspring, reducing female energy costs

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28
Q

benefits of sexual reproduction

A
  1. purging mutations
  2. coping with environmental variation
  3. coping with parasites and pathogens
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29
Q

purging mutations

A

sexually reproducing organisms can lose deleterious mutations during meiosis
- due to random assortment, many gametes will not contain mutations

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30
Q

what will the fusion of two gametes with the same mutation result in

A

an offspring that is homozygous recessive for that mutation; likely that the offspring will not be viable

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31
Q

what organisms have no means of purging mutations

A

asexual

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32
Q

coping with environmental variation

A

offspring are likely to encounter different environmental conditions than their parents did

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33
Q

what do offspring with genetic variation resulting from sexual reproduction have

A

an increased probability of possessing gene combinations that will help them adapt to different conditions

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34
Q

coping with parasites and pathogens

A

pathogens have much shorter generation times and larger population sizes than the host species they infect
- this allows pathogens to evolve ways around host defenses and forces hosts to repidly evolve new defenses

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35
Q

Red Queen Hypothesis

A

sexual selection allows hosts to evolve at a rate that counters the rapid evolution of parasites

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36
Q

perfect flowers

A

flowers that contain both male and female flowers

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37
Q

simultaneous hermaphrodites

A

individuals that possess male and female reproductive functions at the same time

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38
Q

individuals that possess male and female reproductive functions at the same time

A

simultaneous hermaphrodites

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39
Q

individuals that possess male or female reproductive function and then switch to the other

A

sequential hermaphrodites

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40
Q

sequential hermaphrodites

A

individuals that possess male or female reproductive function and then switch to the other

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41
Q

monoecious

A

plants that have separate male and female flowers on the same level

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42
Q

plants that have separate male and female flowers on the same level

A

monoecioius

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43
Q

plants that contain either only male flowers or only female flowers on a single individual

A

dioecious

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44
Q

dioecious

A

plants that contain either only male flowers or only female flowers on a single individual

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45
Q

polygamo-dioecious

A

having bisexual and male flowers on some plants and bisexual and female flowers on others

46
Q

having bisexual and male flowers on some plants and bisexual and female flowers on others

A

polygamo-dioecious

47
Q

natural selection should favor the strategy with the highest

A

fitness

48
Q

if a male can invest in female function while giving up only a small amount of male fitness (or vice versa), selection should favor

A

hermaphroditism

49
Q

when does self-fertilization (selfing) occur for hermaphrodites

A

when an individual’s male gametes fertilize its own female gametes

50
Q

selfing poses a cost due to

A

inbreeding depression

51
Q

since self-fertilization poses a cost due to inbreeding depression, what should selection favor

A

individuals that can breed with other individuals (outcrossing) when possible

52
Q

how does sequential hermaphroditism avoid the problem of selfing

A

by separating sexual functions in time

53
Q

What do some species have that prevents organisms from being able to self

A

self-incompatibility genes

54
Q

some species can switch between

A

outcrossing and selfing

55
Q

What happens when mates are available

A

individuals outcross

56
Q

what happens when mates are unavailable

A

individuals self-fertilize

57
Q

what does self-fertilization produce

A

less viable offspring (better than nothing)

58
Q

what can mixed mating be in response to

A

a lack of resources in the environment

59
Q

in organisms with separate sexes, what is the typical sex ratio of male to female offspring

A

1:1

60
Q

what is sex determined by

A

inheritance of sex-specific chromosomes

61
Q

XX

A

females

62
Q

XY

A

males

63
Q

what will the sex that possesses two different chromosomes produce

A

approximately equal number of gametes with each chromosome

64
Q

in some, what is sex determined by

A

the presence or absence of a sex-specific chromosome

65
Q

In bees, ants, and wasps, what is sex determined by

A

whether or not eggs are fertilized

66
Q

Environmental sex determination

A

a process in which sex is determined mostly by the environment

67
Q

a process in which sex is determined mostly by the environment

A

environmental sex determination

68
Q

type of phenotypic plasticity, where phenotype is sex

A

environmental sex determination

69
Q

frequency dependent selection

A

when the rarer sex in a population is favored by natural selection

70
Q

when the rarer sex in a population is favored by natural selection

A

frequency dependent selection

71
Q

in a population with an uneven sex ratio, what will the rarer sex do

A

compete with fewer individuals for breeding

72
Q

what is the consequence of the rarer sex competing with fewer individuals for breeding

A

the rarer sex will experience higher fitness

73
Q

what will mothers that produce the rarer sex experience and why

A

increased fitness because her offspring will produce more offspring (selection should favor a mother that produces the rarer sex

74
Q

what happens as selection causes the rare sex to become common

A

the sex ratio of the population will eventually become even

75
Q

when may skewed sex ratios occur

A

with local mate competition

76
Q

local mate competition

A

competiton for mates occurs in a very limited area, and only a few males are required to fertilize all of the females

77
Q

mating system

A

the number of mates each individual has and the relationship with those mates

78
Q

the number of mates each individual has and the relationship with those mates

A

mating system

79
Q

what does a female’s reproductive success depend on

A

how many eggs she can produce and mate quality

80
Q

what does a male’s success depend on

A

the number of females he can fertilize

81
Q

promiscuity

A

males mate with multiple females and females mate with multiple males and do not create lasting social bonds; common among animals and outcrossing plants

82
Q

males mate with multiple females and females mate with multiple males and do not create lasting social bonds; common among animals and outcrossing plants

A

promiscuity

83
Q

what does rampant promiscuity fend off

A

disease, bad genes, and extinction

84
Q

the more different males and females look in a species…

A

the more polygamous they’re likely to be

85
Q

polygamy

A

a single individual of one sex forms long-term social bonds with more than one individual of the opposite sex

86
Q

a single individual of one sex forms long-term social bonds with more than one individual of the opposite sex

A

polygamy

87
Q

polygyny

A

a polygamous mating system in which a male mates with more than one female

88
Q

a polygamous mating system in which a male mates with more than one female

A

polygyny

89
Q

when may polygyny evolve

A

when males compete for females, or when a male can defend territory and resources

90
Q

polyandry

A

a polygamous mating system in which a female mates with more than one male

91
Q

a polygamous mating system in which a female mates with more than one male

A

polyandry

92
Q

when may polyandry evolve

A

when females search for superior sperm or receive material benefits from each suitor

93
Q

where can polygyny typically be found

A

a group with one male and multiple females (humans, gorillas, elk)

94
Q

who usually provides the majority of parental care in polygynous systems

A

females

95
Q

polygyny threshold model

A

demonstrates the link between female reproductive success and territory quality or the quality of a breeding situation

96
Q

an explanation for why polygynous systems persist

A

polygyny threshold model

97
Q

what does the polygyny threshold model also show

A

the effects of female reproductive success when multiple females in the same territory mate with one male

98
Q

monogamy

A

when a social bond between a male and female persists through the period that is required for them to rear offspring

99
Q

when is monogamy favored

A

when males make important contributions in raising offspring

100
Q

extra-pair copulation

A

when an individual that has a social bond with a mate also breeds with other individuals

101
Q

why do females use extra-pair copulation strategy

A

to obtain superior genotypes an dproduce offspring with better genetics

102
Q

mate guarding

A

one partner prevents the other partner from participating in extra-pair copulations

103
Q

sexual selection

A

natural selection for sex-specific traits that are related to reproduction; leads to a variety of differences between males and females

104
Q

sexual dimorphism

A

the difference in the phenotype between males and females of the same species (body size, courtship behavior)

105
Q

primary sexual characteristics

A

traits related to fertilization

106
Q

secondary sexual characteristics

A

traits related to differences between the sexes in terms of body size, ornaments, color, and courtship

107
Q

what do female preference for male traits relate to

A

features that improve her fitness, such as material benefits (e.g., high-quality territory)

108
Q

good genes hypothesis

A

an individual chooses a mate that possesses a superior genotype

109
Q

good health hypothesis

A

an individual chooses the healthiest mates

110
Q

runaway sexual selection

A

selection for preference of a sexual trait and selection for that trait continue to reinforce each other; continues until males run out of genetic variation

111
Q

extreme traits

A

burden males by requiring energy and resources, and attracting predators

112
Q

the handicap principle

A

the greater the handicap an individual carries, the greater its ability must be to offset that trait

General Ecology (16 decks)

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