Chapter 1 Flashcards
Ecology
the scientific study of the abundance and distribution of organism in relation to other organisms and environmental conditions
the scientific study of the abundance and distribution of organism in relation to other organisms and environmental conditions
Ecology
What resembles business interactions among humans
the large number of interactions among species (hence “the economy of nature”)
What did Darwin term ecology as?
the economy of nature
Oikos
house-hold
The study of the relationships among organisms of different species (biotic component), as well as their relationship with the abiotic (non-living) components of the environment
ecology
What perspective does ecology have
holistic
what do ecologists seek to understand
order in the natural world
the science that seeks to understand the distribution and abundance of life on earth. this understanding is never complete or absolute, rather it is dynamic
ecology
why are song birds disappearing rapidly
- loss of wintering habitat in central and south america
- habitat fragmentation and cowbird parasitism in north america
- climate change - reproductive phenology of flowering plants and insects
The following are true
- the natural world is diverse, complex, and interconnected
- the natural world is dynamic but also stable and self-replenishing
- the natural world is organized by physical and biological processes
How to ecological systems exist?
in a hierarchical organization
What are ecological systems
biological entities that have their own internal processes and interact with their external surroundings
Individual
the most fundamental unit of ecology
the most fundamental unit of ecology
individual
What do individuals acquire and produce
acquire: nutrients and energy
produce: waste
What do individuals have
a membrane boundary that separates internal processes from the external environment
Species
individuals that are capable of interbreeding or sharing genetic similarity
individuals that are capable of interbreeding or sharing genetic similarity
species
Population
individuals of the same species living in a particular area.
individuals of the same species living in a particular area.
population
boundaries
can be natural (e.g. forest edges) or political (e.g. state lines)
Geographic range (distribution)
the extent of land or water within which a population lives
the extent of land or water within which a population lives
geographic range (distribution)
Abundance
total number of individuals
total number of individuals
abundance
Density
number of individuals per unit area and change in size
number of individuals per unit area and change in size
density
composition
the makeup in terms of age, gender, or genetics
the makeup in terms of age, gender, or genetics
composition
community
populations of species living together in a particular area
populations of species living together in a particular area
Community
Boundaries are not always _____, and may cover _____
rigid; small or large areas
Interactions included in community
predation and competition
ecosystem
one or more communities of living organisms interacting with their nonliving
physical and chemical environments
one or more communities of living organisms interacting with their nonliving
physical and chemical environments
ecosystem
what is research focused on
movement of energy and matter between physical and biological components
What does research include
the “flow” of material from “pools” of elements, such as carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and phosphorus. Also the flow of energy from producers to herbivores – to carnivores to –
detritivores. Some energy is passed along – much lost as heat.
biosphere
all ecosystems on earth
all ecosystems on earth
biosphere
what are distant ecosystems linked together by
exchanges of wind and water and by the movement of organisms - the ultimate ecological system
individual approach
understands how adaptations, or characteristics of an individual’s morphology, physiology, and behavior enable it to survive in an environment
understands how adaptations, or characteristics of an individual’s morphology, physiology, and behavior enable it to survive in an environment
individual approach
population approach
Examines variation in the number, density, and composition of individuals over time and space.
Examines variation in the number, density, and composition of individuals over time and space.
population approach
community approach
Understands the diversity and interactions of organisms living together in the same place.
Understands the diversity and interactions of organisms living together in the same place.
community approach
Ecosystem approach
describes the storage and transfer of energy and matter
describes the storage and transfer of energy and matter
ecosystem approach
biosphere approach
examines movements of energy and chemicals over the earth’s surface
examines movements of energy and chemicals over the earth’s surface
biosphere approach
what are ecosystems governed by
physical and biological principles
first law of thermodynamics
matter and energy cannot be created or destroyed, but can change form
ecological systems…
gain and lose matter and energy
when does a dynamic steady state occur
when gains and losses are in balance
Input: food
output: energy expended, waste
input: births, immigration
output: deaths, emigration
input: colonization by new species
output: extinction of species
input: solar energy and matter entering ecosystem
output: energy and matter leaving ecosystem
input: solar energy entering system
output: energy re-radiated to space
Phenotype
an attribute of an organism (e.g. behavior, morphology)
an attribute of an organism (e.g. behavior, morphology)
Phenotype
Genotype
the set of genes an organism carries; determines an organism’s phenotype
the set of genes an organism carries; determines an organism’s phenotype
genotype
Evolution
a change in the genetic composition of a population over time. In the long run common ancestry links all organisms through time (descent with modification).
a change in the genetic composition of a population over time. In the long run common ancestry links all organisms through time (descent with modification).
evolution
natural selection
a change in the frequency of genes in a population through differential survival and reproduction of individuals that possess certain phenotypes
a change in the frequency of genes in a population through differential survival and reproduction of individuals that possess certain phenotypes
natural selection
Three requirements
- individuals vary in their traits
- traits are heritable
- variation in traits causes some individuals to experience higher fitness (survival and reproduction)
what do different organisms do
play diverse roles in ecological systems
what were the first organisms
prokaryotes
prokaryotes
single-celled bacteria and
archaea without distinct organelles
energy that prokaryotes can utilize that other organisms cannot
N2, H2S gas
how did the mitochondria come about
one bacterium engulfed another bacterium
what did the mitochondria give rise to
all eukaryotes
eukaryotes
organisms with distinct cell organelles
what did mitochondria evolve into
photosynthetic chloroplasts that increased the abundance of oxygen in the atmosphere, allowing other plants and animals to survive
Protists
eukaryotes that include protozoa, some algae, and slime molds
what do plants convert CO2 and water into
organic molecules
What do plants use roots for
extracting water from soil or air
What do most fungi have
hyphae
what do hyphae do
extract nutrients from dead or living tissues
What do fungi do
secrete acids and have enzymes that digest food externally
May fungi are
decomposers and plant mutualists
What play a wide range of roles in ecological systems
animals
what do animals rely on
the consumption of other organisms for resources
producers (autotrophs)
convert chemical energy into resources
convert chemical energy into resources
producers (autotrophs)
consumers (heterotrophs)
obtain energy from other organisms
obtain energy from other organisms
consumers (heterotrophs)
mixotrophs
can switch between being producers and consumers
can switch between being producers and consumers
mixotrophs
scavengers
consume dead animals
consume dead animals
scavengers
detritivores
break down dead organic matter (i.e., detritus) into smaller particles
break down dead organic matter (i.e., detritus) into smaller particles
detritivores
decomposers
break down detritus into simpler elements that can be recycled (fungi and bacteria)
Predation
when an organism kills and consumes an individual
when an organism kills and consumes an individual
predation
Parasitism
when one organism lives in or on another organism
when one organism lives in or on another organism
parasitism
herbivory
when one organism consumes a producer
when one organism consumes a producer
herbivory
competiton
when two organisms that depend on the same resource have a negative effect on each other
when two organisms that depend on the same resource have a negative effect on each other
competition
mutualism
when two species benefit from each other
when two species benefit from each other
mutualism
commensalism
when two species live in close association and one receives a benefit, whereas the other is unaffected
+ -
- predation/parasitoidism
- parasitism
- herbivory
- -
competition
+ +
mutualism
+ 0
commensalism
habitat
the place, or physical setting, where an organism lives
the place, or physical setting, where an organism lives
habitat
distinguished by physical features, such as dominate plant type
habitat
Examples of a habitat
freshwater, marine, coastal, streams, forests, deserts, grasslands
Niche
the range of abiotic and biotic conditions an organism can tolerate
the range of abiotic and biotic conditions an organism can tolerate
niche
Why does no two species have the same niche
each has unique phenotypes that determine the conditions it can tolerate
what is the ecological niche of a species
the combination of its role in a community, its habitat, and interactions with other organisms
hypotheses
ideas that potentially explain a repeated observation
ideas that potentially explain a repeated observation
hypotheses
address the cause of immediate changes in individual phenotypes or interactions
proximate hypotheses
proximate hypotheses
address the cause of immediate changes in individual phenotypes or interactions
Address the fitness costs and benefits of a response
ultimate hypotheses
ultimate hypotheses
address the fitness costs and benefits of a response
predictions
statements that arise logically from hypotheses
statements that arise logically from hypotheses
predictions
where a hypothesis is tested by altering a factor hypothesized to be the cause of a phenomenon
manipulative experiments
manipulative experiments
where a hypothesis is tested by altering a factor hypothesized to be the cause of a phenomenon
treatment
the factor that we want to manipulate in a study
the factor that we want to manipulate in a study
treatment
a treatment that includes all aspects of an experiment except the factor of interest
control
control
a treatment that includes all aspects of an experiment except the factor of interest
Experimental unit (unit of observation)
the object to which we apply a manipulation
the object to which we apply a manipulation
Experimental unit (unit of observation)
being able to produce a similar outcome multiple times (i.e., the number of experimental units per treatment).
Replication
Replication
being able to produce a similar outcome multiple times (i.e., the number of experimental units per treatment).
a requirement for manipulation experiments; every experimental unit must have an equal chance of being assigned to a particular treatment.
Randomization
Randomization
a requirement for manipulation experiments; every experimental unit must have an equal chance of being assigned to a particular treatment.
Natural experiments
an approach to hypothesis testing that relies on natural variation in the environment to test a hypothesis
an approach to hypothesis testing that relies on natural variation in the environment to test a hypothesis
Natural experiments
representations of a system with a set of equations that correspond to hypothesized relationships among the system’s components
Mathematical models
Mathematical models
representations of a system with a set of equations that correspond to hypothesized relationships among the system’s components
when do ecologists often test mathematic models
using natural or manipulative experiments
Y=
dependent variable
x
independent variable
environments dominated by humans (cities, farms) are also ecological systems
humans depend on the proper functioning of these systems
humans consume and produce
consume: massive amounts of energy and resources
produce
produce: large amounts of waste
Greenhouse gases
compounds in the atmosphere that absorb infrared heat energy emitted by Earth and then emit some of the energy back toward Earth. High amounts of these gases can increase average Earth temperatures
compounds in the atmosphere that absorb infrared heat energy emitted by Earth and then emit some of the energy back toward Earth. High amounts of these gases can increase average Earth temperatures
greenhouse gases
