chapter 9

Question 1

Mental representations

Answer 1

includes images, ideas, concepts and principals

Question 2

Adaptive functions of language

Answer 2

• Language use evolved as humans adopted a more socially orientated lifestyle and formed larger social units (flinn)
• Language made it easier for humans to adapt to these environmental demands

Question 3

Hierachal structure of language:

Answer 3

• phoneme
• morphemes
• discourse

Question 4

phoneme

Answer 4

the smallest unit of speech sound in a language that can signal a difference in meaning

Question 5

morphemes

Answer 5

the smallest unit of meaning in a language

Question 6

discourse

Answer 6

in which sentences are combined into paragraphs, articles, books and conversations and so forth

Question 7

semantics

Answer 7

the meaning of words and sentences

Question 8

Generativity

Answer 8

means that the symbols of language can be combined to generate an infinite number of messages that have a novel meaning

Question 9

Bottom up processing:

Answer 9

Individual elements of a stimulus are analysed and then combined to form a unified perception

Question 10

Top down processing:

Answer 10

Sensory information is interpreted in light of existing knowledge, concepts, ideas, and expectations

Question 11

Speech segmentation:

Answer 11

• perceiving where each word within a spoken sentence begins and ends
• auditory breaks in speech

Question 12

pragmatics

Answer 12

a knowledge of the practical aspects of using language

• depends of the aspects of the social context
• type of top down processing

Question 13

Brocas area

Answer 13

speech production

Question 14

Werinkers area

Answer 14

speech comprehension ‘

Question 15

Aphasias

Answer 15

an impairment in speech comprehension and or production that can be permanent or temporary

Question 16

what Susan Rossel find

Answer 16

men and woman language task in which words and non words were presented on each side of a computer screen. Men exhibited greater left hemisphere activation during the language task where as womans brain activation occurred in both the left and right hemipsheres

Question 17

Chomsky

Answer 17

• proposed that from out birth our genetic endowment innately led us to interpret part of the environment as linguistic experience
• we were born pre wired to understand the general grammatical rules common to all languages
• unfolding of a biologically primed process within a social learning environment

Question 18

skinner

Answer 18

• children’s language development is strongly governed by adults positive reinforcement of appropriate language and non reinforcement or correction of inappropriate verbalisations

Question 19

Bilingualism

Answer 19

• The ability to translate print into sound
• As children acquire speech they not only learn how to manipulate phonemes to produce different words but also into more basic sound elements
• Phonological awareness: to refer to this overall awareness of the sound structure of ones language

Question 20

Linguistic relatively hypothesis

Answer 20

that language not only influences but also determines what we are capable of thinking

Question 21

Propositional thought

Answer 21

it expresses a proposition or statement

Question 22

Imaginable thought

Answer 22

consists of images that we can see, hear or feel in our mind

Question 23

Motoric thought

Answer 23

relates to mental representations of motor movements

Question 24

Propositions

Answer 24

statements that express ideas

Question 25

Concepts

Answer 25

are basic untis of semantic memory – mental catergories into which we place objects, activities and abstractions and events that have essential features in common

Question 26

Prototypes

Answer 26

the most typical and familiar members of a category or class

Question 27

Reasoning

Answer 27

helps us acquire knowledge, make sound decisions, solve problems and avoid hazards and time consuming efforts of trial and error

Question 28

Deductive reasoning:

Answer 28

- We reason from the top down that is from general principals to a conclusion about a specific case - Can be certain on results

Question 29

Inductive reasoning:

Answer 29

- We reason from the bottom up starting with specific facts and trying to develop a general principal - Cannot be certain on results always room for error

Question 30

Things that impair effective reasoning:

Answer 30

- Distraction by irrelevant information: - Belief bias: is the tendency to abandon one’s logical rules in favour of our own personal beliefs - Emotions and framing. Framing: refers to the idea that the same information, problem or options can be structured and presented in different ways

Question 31

Generating potential solutions from problems:

Answer 31

1- Determine the procedures and strategies that will be considered 2- Determine which solutions are consistent with the evidence that has been observed thus far. Rule out any solutions that do not fit the evidence 3- Testing the solutions: Mental set: the tendency to stick to solutions that have worked in the past 4- Evaluating results: - Deciding if there was an easier or more effective way to accomplish the same objective

Question 32

Mental set

Answer 32

the tendency to stick to solutions that have worked in the past

Question 33

Algorithms

Answer 33

are formulas or precise sequences of procedures that automatically generate solutions

Question 34

Heuristics

Answer 34

are a general problem solving strategies, similar to mental rules-of-thumb that we apply to certain classes of situations

Question 35

Means ends analysis:

Answer 35

involves identifying the differences between the present situation and a desired goal and then making changes that reduce these differences

Question 36

Sub goal analysis

Answer 36

formulating sub goals or intermediate steps towards a solution

Question 37

Availability heuristic:

Answer 37

In which people base judgements and decisions on how easily information is available to memory

Question 38

Representativeness heuristics:

Answer 38

We think about how closely something fits our prototype for that particular concept, or class, and therefore how likely it is to be a member of that class

Question 39

Confirmation bias

Answer 39

tending to look for evidence that confirm what they currently believe rather than look for evidence that will disconfirm their beliefs

Question 40

Overconfidence

Answer 40

the tendency to overestimate one’s correctness in factual knowledge, beliefs and decisions

Question 41

Schema

Answer 41

is a mental framework concerning sequence of events that usually unfolds in a regular almost standardised order

Question 42

Metacognition

Answer 42

refers to your awareness and understanding of your own cognitive abilities Improving metacognition:

Question 43

Mental imagery

Answer 43

is a representation of a stimulus that originates inside your brain rather than from external sensory input