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intro to psychology > chapter 8.1-8.2 > Flashcards

chapter 8.1-8.2 Flashcards

1
Q

what are concepts

A

the mental representation of an object, event, or idea
- there are very few independent concepts
- chair, armchair, sofa, table } furniture

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2
Q

what are categories

A

clusters of interrelated concepts

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3
Q

what is rule-based categorization

A

categorizing objects or events according to a certain set of rules by a specific set of features
- dictionary definition

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4
Q

when we face problems, how do we confront them

A

graded membership

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5
Q

what is graded membership

A

the observation that some concepts appear to make better category members than other

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6
Q

how have psychologist studied the rule-based categorization

A

sentence verification technique

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7
Q

what is sentence verification technique

A

volunteers wait for a sentence to appear in front of them on a screen and respond as quickly as they can with ‘yes’ or ‘no’

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8
Q

what does the sentence verification technique show us

A

some categories are recognized faster than others

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9
Q

what is an examplar

A

a specific example that best represents a category

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9
Q

what is an example of category by comparison

A

when you read the word ‘bird’ you imagine a blue jay rather than an ostrich

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10
Q

what is a prototype

A

a mental representation of an average category member

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11
Q

what is the difference between prototype and examplar

A

an examplar is a real example, whereas a prototype can be thought as an image that combines typical features of category

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12
Q

what is the advantage of comparison approach to categorization

A

they better explain why some category members make better examples than others

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13
Q

when do we use resemblance or rules

A

resemblance = when major distinctions between items

rules = complications between items

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13
Q

how else is information organized

A

networks and hierarchies

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14
Q

how can connection among ideas be represented

A

a semantic network diagram

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15
Q

what is a semantic network

A

an interconnected set of nodes or concepts and the links that join them to form a category

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16
Q

what is a node

A

circles that represent concepts

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17
Q

what is links

A

connect them together to represent the structure of a category as well as the relationship among categories

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18
Q

what is hierarchy

A

consists of a structure moving from general to very specific

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18
Q

what are two useful levels of categories for different situations

A
  1. basic level category
  2. superordinate categories
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18
Q

what is basic level category

A

middle row of the diagram
- the terms used most often in a conversation
- the easiest words to pronounce

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19
Q

what is superordinate categories

A

generally used when people are unsure about an object or when they wish to group together a number of different examples from the basic level category
- there is an animal in your bed

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20
Q

how do semantic networks work

A

you encounter one aspect of a category, and other related concepts seem to come to mind, you are noticing connections through semantic networks
- the word fruit you think if an apple, which could lead you to think of an iphone

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21
what is priming
a technique in which previous exposure to a stimulus can influence that individual's later responses either to the same stimulus or to one that is related to it
22
how can psychologist test for priming
through reaction time measurements
23
what is a lexical decision task example
a volunteer sits at a computer and stares at a focal point. next a string of letters flashes on the screen. the volunteer quickly responds 'yes' or 'no' to indicate whether the letters spell out a word
23
what is priming weakest
when it is applied to large, physical concepts such as a persons posture movementsn
24
when is priming strongest
language activates concepts and categories in your mind
25
what is the previous process of concepts and categories formed in
our personal day to day experiences that are based within a culture ranging from family to food we eat
26
how do people integrate new stimuli into categories
based on what they have seen, heard about, or read before - when we encounter a new item, it closely matches a category we are familiar with, leading us to categorization by comparison
27
how does experience help us
we can use comparison techniques quickly and accurately - however, recent exposure to an example from one category can bias how people diagnose new cases
28
what happens in categories of the brain
some patients with damage to temporal lobes have trouble identifying pictures of animals but can identify shapes that make it up
29
what is category specific visual agnosia
when you damage a part of the brain it could impair the ability to recognize some categories and affect others
30
what do people with category-specific visual agnosia have trouble identifying
fruits, vegatables, and/or animals
31
what could people with category-specific visual agnosia remember
the members of categories such as tools or furniture
32
what part of the brain is active when people view items from different categories
temporal lobes
33
how do children recognize
1. plants and animals 2. words for various life forms - tree or flower = plant, fish or bird = animal
33
what do we know about culture and categories
culture tends to recognize the same objects and share basic-level concepts in these categories
33
what is folk biology
the way people in various communities and cultures think about the natural world in their daily lives
34
what is basic level of category based on
cultural learning
34
what do cultural factors influence
how we categorize individual objects and how objects in our world relate to one another
35
what are the lateral parts of the occipital lobes responsible for
processing objects
35
what are the parahippocampus gynas responsible for
processing background
35
what are satisfiers
individuals happy with whatever happens
36
what is linguistic relativity
the theory is that the language we use determines how we understand the world - many worlds for an object with different meanings
36
how are the occipital lobes and parahippocampus gyna activated
westerns view these photos, whereas only areas devoted to background processes become activated in east asians
36
what are maximizers
individuals who strive for perfection
37
what is problem solving
accomplishing a goal when the solution or path to the solution is not clear
38
what are problem solving techniques and strategies
1. objective, logical, and slower 2. subjective, intuitive, and quicker
39
what are algorithms
problem-solving strategies based on a series of rules
39
you lose your phone and have your friend call it from theirs but you can't hear it what would the techniques do
logical = tracking where you previously were intuitive = think of previous times you lost the phone and use experiences to guide your search
40
what is heuristic
problem solving strategies that stem from prior experiences and provide educated guesses as to what is the most likely situation
41
what is cognitive obstacles
placing limitations that were not stated in the rules - the 9 dot problem is a good example
41
what is a mental set
a cognitive obstacle that occurs when an individual attempts to apply a routine solution to what is actually a new type of problem
42
what way can a mental set occur in
functional fixedness
43
what is functional fixedness
occurs when an individual identifies an object or technique that could potentially solve a problem but can think of only its most obvious function
44
what do heuristics allow us to do
make judgements and decisions
45
what are conjunction fallacies
reflects the mistaken belief that finding a specific member in two overlapping categories is more likely than finding any member of the larger general categories
45
what did benign violation theory state
the solution to jokes usually requires 3 elements 1. the audience to detect incongruity between set up and punchline 2. resolves the violation 3. if it causes no harm
46
what does the conjunction fallacies use
representative heuristic
47
what is representative heuristic
making judgements of likelihood based on how well an example represents a specific category
48
what is availability heuristic
entails estimating the frequency of an event based on how easily examples of it come to mind - if examples are readily available, then they must be frequent
49
what is the anchoring effect
occurs when an individual attempts to solve a problem involving numbers and uses previous knowledge to keep the response within a limited range
49
what do representativeness and avalability heuristics involve
our ability to remember examples that are similar to the current situation, other heuristics influence our response based on the way information is presented
50
what can decision making be influenced by
how a problem is framed
51
what are we often more invested in terms of belief and perseverance
preserving confidence in our beliefs than getting to the truth
52
what is belief perseverance
when an individual remains committed to their decision or belief even in the face of evidence against it
53
what is an example of belief perseverance
by interpreting a specific event to fit their views, the participants were able to preserve their belief in the integrity of their own party, in the flaws of opposition
54
what is conformation bias
when individual search for only evidence that will confirm their beliefs instead of evidenece that might disconfirm them
55
what is the paradox of choice
the observation that more choices can lead to less satisfaction
56
what does the dissatisfaction from maximizers suggest
they invest more in the decision so they expect more from the outcome
57
what leads to maximizer behaviour
when they are dissatisfied it typically leads them to maximizing behaviour

intro to psychology (7 decks)

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