Chapter 8: Learning Key Terms Flashcards
Learning:
Enduring changes in behavior that occur with experience.
Association:
A process by which two pieces of information from the environment are repeatedly linked, so that we begin to connect them in our minds.
Conditioning:
A form of associative learning in which behaviors are triggered by associations with events in the environment.
Classical conditioning:
A form of associative learning in which a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus to which one has an automatic, inborn response.
Neutral stimulus:
An object or situation that when presented alone does not lead to an automatic (or unconditioned) response.
Unconditioned response (UCR):
The natural, automatic, inborn, and involuntary reaction to a stimulus.
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS):
The environmental input that always produces the same unlearned, involuntary response.
Conditioned stimulus (CS):
A previously neutral input that an organism learns to associate with the UCS.
Conditioned response (CR):
A behavior that an organism learns to perform when presented with the CS.
Stimulus generalization:
Extension of the association between UCS and CS to include a broad array of similar stimuli.
Stimulus discrimination:
The restriction of a CR (such as salivation) to only the exact CS to which it was conditioned.
Extinction:
The weakening and disappearance of a conditioned response in the absence of reinforcement.
Spontaneous recovery:
The sudden reappearance of an extinguished response.
Law of effect:
The consequences of a behavior increase (or decrease) the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated.
Operant conditioning:
The process of changing behavior by manipulating the consequences of that behavior.
Reinforcer:
An internal or external event that increases the frequency of a behavior.
Primary reinforcers:
Innate, unlearned reinforcers that satisfy biological needs (such as food, water, or sex).
Secondary (conditioned) reinforcers:
Reinforcers that are learned by association, usually via classical conditioning (such as money, grades, and peer approval).
Positive reinforcement:
The presentation or addition of a stimulus after a behavior occurs that increases how often that behavior will occur.
Negative reinforcement:
The removal of a stimulus after a behavior to increase the frequency of that behavior.
Punishment:
A stimulus that decreases the frequency of a behavior.
Positive punishment:
The addition of a stimulus that decreases behavior.
Negative punishment:
The removal of a stimulus to decrease behavior.
Shaping:
The reinforcement of successive approximations of a desired behavior.
Skinner box:
A simple chamber in which a small animal can move around, with a food dispenser and a response lever to trigger food delivery.
Schedules of reinforcement:
Patterns of intermittent reinforcement distinguished by whether reinforcement occurs after a set number of responses or after a certain amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.
Continuous reinforcement:
Reinforcement of a behavior every time it occurs.
Intermittent reinforcement:
Reinforcement of a behavior—but not after every response.
Fixed-ratio (FR) schedule):
A pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which reinforcement follows a set number of responses.
Variable-ratio (VR) schedule:
A pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which the number of responses needed for reinforcement changes.
Fixed-interval (FI) schedule:
A pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are always reinforced after a set period of time has passed.
Variable-interval (VI) schedule:
A pattern of intermittent reinforcement in which responses are reinforced after time periods of different durations have passed.
Conditioned taste aversion:
The learned avoidance of a particular taste or food.
Latent learning:
Learning that occurs in the absence of reinforcement and is not demonstrated until later, when reinforcement occurs.
Social learning theory:
The kind of learning that occurs when we model the behavior of others.
Observational learning:
Learning influenced by watching the behavior of others.
Modeling:
The imitation of behaviors performed by others. A kind of observational learning.
Ethology:
The scientific study of animal behavior.
Embodied cognition:
The thought processes involved in representing parts of the body and/or reenacting bodily actions in thought.
