Chapter 8 - Everyday Memory and Memory Errors Flashcards
Define autobiographical memory, which is a type of episodic memory.
-memory for your experiences in your life (think life story)
What types of memories occur during mental time travel?
-both episodic and semantic
Define autobiographical facts
-context-free knowledge of one’s own personal world (considered semantic memories)
What are some difficulties to testing autobiographical memory? (2)
-events are from the past, possibly long time ago
-it is hard to assess the accuracy
Since autobiographical memories are so difficult to assess for accuracy, what do researchers focus on instead? What’s a technique they us? (2)
-things that can be assessed including age, vividness, detail, emotional intensity
-diary
Describe the study by Cabeza et al., on autobiographical memory. (2)
-had participants take their own photos of the campus and put stock photos of the same buildings
-participants would have their own photos as part of their autobiographical memory, whereas the stock photos were not part of this memory
What brain structures were activated by both A-photos (photographs the students took) and the stock images?
-Structures associated with episodic memory and processing scenes (parietal).
What were the results of the study by Cabeza et al., on autobiographical memory? Specifically, the student’s own photos activated what thee brain structures? (3)
Their own photos activated brain structures associated with:
-processing info about the self
-memory for visual space
-mental time travel (hippocampus)
What was the most significant finding by the Cabeza et al., research study on autobiographical memory?
-that the hippocampus showed the largest difference in activation meaning that autobiographical memories seem to activate this area more than other types of memories
What events are remembered well? (3)
-significant events
-highly emotional event
-transition points
What is the autobiographical memory retention function?
-a graph that represents the number of autobiographical memories recalled over time
What effects can you see in the autobiographical memory retention function? (the graph) (3)
-childhood amnesia
-reminiscence bump
-forgetting stage
What is the emergence of autobiographical memories also known as?
-The offset of childhood amnesia.
What term describes the scarcity of memories from the first few years of life?
-childhood/infant amnesia
At what age do people have very few or almost no autobiographical memories?
-before age 3
What is a key methodological problem when studying autobiographical memory?
-There is no guarantee that participants are truly remembering the events (they may recall details from photos or others’ memories of the event).
How can researchers minimize errors in autobiographical memory recall studies?
-By asking about important childhood events that can be corroborated.
What did Usher & Neisser (1993) find about autobiographical memory recall before age 5? What did they find children do recall? (2)
-Relatively poor memory before age 5.
-very emotionally charged events, such as the birth of a sibling (though death of a family or a move are remembered less)
Why might the birth of a sibling be memorable?
-It often becomes part of a family story that is retold repeatedly, giving it more rehearsal
How does rehearsal with stories and pictures affect memory differently based on a child’s age?
-Rehearsal with stories and pictures tends to result in weaker memories for children age 3 or younger, but stronger memories for children aged 4 or 5.
Why might memories be weaker for children aged 2-3 when rehearsed with stories and pictures?
-Their memory is still fragile and easily confused with stories and pictures, which can obscure actual memories.
What are the three main explanations for the offset of childhood amnesia? (3)
-Brain development
-language development
-development of the self
Which areas of the brain are underdeveloped during early childhood, contributing to memory deficits?
-hippocampus and prefrontal cortex
How might the timing of different brain systems’ development affect autobiographical memory (AM)?
-Because non-declarative and declarative systems develop at different times, autobiographical memory may not fully develop until certain ages.
How does language development relate to the development of autobiographical memory (AM)?
-develops with language development. Children begin to remember events as soon as they can describe them using language.
What two parental narrative styles influence the quality of childhood memories? (2)
-elaborative style
-pragmatic style
What is the elaborative style of narration, and with which children is it often used?
-involves more detailed descriptions of past events
-girls
What is the pragmatic style of narration, and with which children is it often used?
-succinct and provides less detail
-boys
What is the female superiority effect in AM recall?
-women tend to recall autobiographical memories in more detail compared to males.
According to Howe & Courage (1993, 1997), what becomes an important organizer of autobiographical memory (AM)?
-The developing sense of self or theory of mind
How is autobiographical memory (AM) related to the concept of the self?
-AM is the knowledge of one’s self and one’s experiences, so children do not demonstrate AM until they have a sense of themselves as independent individuals.
What is the reminiscence bump?
-refers to the high frequency of memories for events that occurred between the ages of 10 and 30 (for people around aged 55)
Why does the reminiscence bump occur?
-think about how many significant events occur during the years of 10-30
Name all of the hypotheses that explain the reminiscence bump? (3)
-self image
-cognitive
-cultural life script
What is the self-image hypothesis in relation to the reminiscence bump?
-Memory is better for events that occur as a person’s self-image or life identity is being formed.
During which life stage do people typically assume their identities, according to the self-image hypothesis?
-During adolescence and young adulthood.
What is the cognitive hypothesis for the reminiscence bump?
-Encoding is better during periods of rapid change that are followed by stability.
What evidence supports the cognitive hypothesis for the reminiscence bump?
-Evidence from individuals who emigrated to the U.S. after young adulthood shows that their reminiscence bump is shifted to be around the time they had emigrated
What is the cultural life-script hypothesis for the reminiscence bump? Give example. (2)
-personal events are easier to recall when they fit the cultural life script.
-when a person’s wedding occurs during the expected period, it is more easily remembered due to its alignment with the cultural life script of life milestones.
What is youth bias?
-tendency for the most notable public events in a person’s life to be perceived to occur when the person is young.
What is the typical memory retention drop over the 4-year period in the AM retention graph?
-Memory drops from 75% correct to 33% correct over a 4-year period.
Which curve is the pattern of memory drop or the forgetting curve similar to?
-The pattern is similar to Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve.
What are some explanations for forgetting? (3)
-Lack of rehearsal/repeating
-Interference from multiple events, where none stand out
-Many events being similar and routine
What is nostalgia?
-yearning to go back to an earlier time in our lives because we have a sentimental feeling about that time in their lives
What percentage of people reported feeling that life was better 50 years ago? Is this different for different generations? (2)
-58% of people reported feeling that life was better 50 years ago.
-applies to each generation
Why does nostalgia fit with the reminiscence bump?
-Nostalgia often involves recalling events from earlier life, particularly from adolescence or early adulthood, which corresponds to the period of the reminiscence bump when memories are most vivid.
What are Music-Elicited Autobiographical Memories (MEAMS)?
-memories that are involuntarily evoked by listening to music, often involving personal and emotional recollections.
How can MEAMS be demonstrated in people with memory impairments?
-The power of music to evoke autobiographical memories has been shown in individuals with Alzheimer’s disease, where music can trigger vivid memories despite memory impairments.
What is the Proust Effect?
-phenomenon where taste and smells can unlock memories from the past
Emotional events are remembered ______ and ________.
-more easily; vividly
LeBar & Phelps (1998) studied the difference in memory for ________ vs neutral words.
-sexually explicit
According to Dolcos et al (2005), emotion ______ memory and becomes greater with _______?
-improves; time
________ may increase memory consolidation.
-cortisol
In a study, the group under stress remembered emotional pictures ________ than the group not under stress because cortisol helps consolidation.
-better
The “Weapons Focus Effect” is an example of how emotion can ________ memory.
-impede
Flashbulb memory refers to what?
-a person’s memory for the circumstances surrounding shocking, highly-charged events.
Brown & Kulik (1977) found that flashbulb memories are what?
-highly emotional, vivid, and very detailed.
Flashbulb memories involve remembering _______________ and what you were ______.
-where you were; doing
What method was used to study flashbulb memories?
-repeated recall
What is compared in the repeated recall method when studying flashbulb memories?
-The detail and accuracy of later reports compared to the original baseline memory (they are asked about details surrounding the memory both times)
What was the result of the study on flashbulb memory of the Space Shuttle Challenger?
-the flashbulb memory was just as inaccurately remembered as participant’s memory for everyday events.
Despite being confident and vivid, how accurate are flashbulb memories typically?
-just as inaccurate as everyday memories, despite participants feeling very confident and their memories seeming vivid.
What did Davidson and coworkers (2006) find about memories for 9/11/01?
-Memories for 9/11/01 were more resistant to fading than memories for other events around that time.
What is a congruence score in the context of memory studies?
-refers to how consistent the details of a memory are when compared to the baseline or previous reports of the same memory.
What did Rimmele et al. (2011) find about memory for negative photos compared to neutral photos?
-Memory was better for negative photos but poorer for the frame color.
What happens to flashbulb memories over time?
-decline with time and are not like photographs.
What brain structure is involved in the emotional response during flashbulb memories?
-amygdala
What is the Narrative Rehearsal Hypothesis?
-suggests that repeated viewing or hearing of an event (e.g., on TV, talking with others) can introduce errors in our memory of the event.
What did Ost et al. (1993) find when they asked participants about a video recording of the crash that killed Princess Diana?
-45% of participants said they had seen the video, even though no such video existed.
What are “phantom flashbulbs”?
-false memories of highly detailed, emotional events that people believe they experienced but did not, often due to misinformation or suggestion.
What study did Neisser and Harsh (1992) conduct to investigate “phantom flashbulbs”?
-They gave participants a questionnaire about the circumstances in which they first heard about the Space Shuttle explosion the day after it occurred.
What did Neisser and Harsh (1992) find about memory errors in their study on phantom flashbulbs?
-they found many serious errors in participants’ reports, although some were correct. Even showing participants their original recall failed to bring back the correct memory, and erroneous reports remained when interviewed six months later.
What was the primary cause of the inconsistencies found in Neisser and Harsh (1992) study on phantom flashbulbs?
-incorrect sources of information (we confuse where we saw it first and have TV priority) and remembering the wrong time slice.
What is “TV priority” in relation to phantom flashbulbs?
-mistaken recollection that participants heard about an event on television, even if they did not, (because TV is more visually stimulating)
What is a “time slice error” in the context of flashbulb memories?
-occurs when participants vividly recall an occasion when they heard about an event, but it wasn’t the first instance
What is a time slice error also known as?
-source monitoring error (not knowing the original source of information)
Why do young people seem to have fewer flashbulb memories compared to older people?
-may have fewer flashbulb memories because emotional events impact them less deeply and lack repeated exposure to solidify memories.
If we experience something, does it become a flashbulb memory?
-No, it does not. It is only a flashbulb memory if it is something you heard of but not experienced yourself
What are the “Seven Sins of Memory” categorized into? Schacter (2001)
-categorized into sins of omission and sins of commission
What does the sin of omission include?
-Transience, Absentmindedness, and Blocking
What is transience in Schacter’s “Seven Sins of Memory”?
refers to memory loss over time
What is absentmindedness in the context of memory?
-forgetting due to inattention, like misplacing items or missing appointments
What is blocking in Schacter’s “Seven Sins of Memory”?
-Failure to retrieve information, like the “tip of the tongue” feeling.
What are the Sins of Commission in Schacter’s “Seven Sins of Memory”?
-include Misattribution, Suggestibility, Bias, and Persistence.
What is misattribution in the context of memory?
-Confusing the source of a memory.
What is suggestibility in Schacter’s “Seven Sins of Memory”?
-Memory altered by external suggestions, creating false recollections.
What is bias in the context of memory?
-Current beliefs and emotions distort past memories.
What is persistence in the context of memory?
-unwanted retrieval of a memory, particularly a distressing or unpleasant one, that we would prefer to forget.
What are memory illusions?
-occur when the brain creates false or distorted memories, making us believe we remember something that didn’t happenor recall it incorrectly.
What is déjà vu?
-feeling that you have previously experienced something, even though it is happening for the first time.
What causes déjà vu according to the brain’s processes?
-The temporal lobe signals that something feels familiar, but the prefrontal regions recognize this as wrong, causing confusion.
Is déjà vu normal, and how often does it occur?
-Yes, déjà vu is normal and typically happens about once a month.
What factors can increase the frequency of déjà vu?
-Stress, fatigue, increasing age and dopaminergic drugs
What is déjà vécu (already lived)? When can it occur? (2)
-persistent déjà vu, where a person feels as though they are repeatedly reliving the same experience, like in the movie Groundhog Day.
-It can occur with dementia or as a result of drug use.
What is jamais vu (never seen)?
-occurs when you fail to recognize that you’ve previously experienced something, even though you know you should. This phenomenon often happens under conditions of stress or fatigue.
What is an example of Jamais vu?
-writing door over and over and thinking is it spelt like that?
What did Bartlett’s war of the ghost experiment show?
-memories are constructive, our experiences and knowledge influence them
What happened when Bartlett’s war of ghost experiment would allow a longer time between reading the story and then retelling it?
-people would change the story to make it more consistent with our own culture and overtime the story became shorter
What did Brantford and Johnson test and what did they find? (2)
-tested the inferences we make around memories
-found when they used the words pounding the nail in people inferred there was a hammer
Define schema. Example (2)
-knowledge about what is involved in a particular experience
Example: what you expect to see at a restaurant
Define script. Example (2)
-connection of sequence of actions that occur during a particular experience
Example: At a restaurant, you might ask for a table, look at the menu, order food, eat, pay the bill, and leave.
Memories can include _______/________ info because it is expected and consistent with the schema.
-false/inferred
The _________ nature of memory can lead to “________________.”
-constructive; false memories
Wells and Bradfield (1999) reviewed legal cases of people who had been wrongfully convicted of crimes. What percent of the wrongful convictions were based solely on eyewitness testimony? Later on, Wells did another study on this and found what percent (based on DNA)?
-50%; 75%
If an eyewitness got a testimony wrong because they were farther away and the light wasn’t super good what are these reasons for an error called?
-perceptual factors
If an eyewitness got a testimony wrong because they focused on the weapon and ignored the peripheral details like the persons face what would this be called?
-weapons focus effect
If an eyewitness got a testimony wrong because they are a different race then what would this be called?
-cross-racial identification
If an eyewitness got a testimony wrong because they see someone who looks familiar and believe that that is the perpetrator what would this be called?
-unconscious transference
Unconscious transference occurs because of _____________________.
-source monitoring errors
What is the misinformation effect?
-when someone tells you information after an event that becomes incorporated into your memory about the event
What does the memory trace replacement explain?
-why the misinformation effect occurs
The strong view of the memory trace replacement says the original memory trace is _____________________ by the suggested view.
-overwritten
The weak view of the memory trace replacement says the original memory trace is _____________________ by the suggested view.
-altered
________________ interference can also explain the misinformation effect. This is where more _______ ___________ intereferes with _____ memory.
-retroactive
-more recent learning interferes with past memory
Define source monitoring
-process of determining the source of the original information
What is a source monitoring error (source misattribution)
-misidentifying source of memory
What is cryptomnesia? Example?
-unconscious plagarism
-Lady Gaga’s born this way is a copy of Madonna’s express yourself
What did the study by Hyman and coworkers on parents description of participants show and false memories?
-The study demonstrated that participants could develop false memories of events described by their parents, even if those events had never occurred. Showcased the misinformation effect
What criteria needs to occur for the misinformation effect to occur? (3)
-plausibility
-event from long ago more likely
-imagination inflation (encouraged to remember details)
What is the most convincing types of evidence for a jury?
-eyewitness testimony
What is the weapons effect?
-focusing on a weapon causes witness to miss relevant information
What is post-identification feedback effect?
-when your confidence in your own memory is increased because you received confirming feedback that you picked the right person
What did the cheating on the gambling game research show?
-false confessions
What five concepts were shown in the 60 minutes video? (5)
- Post identification confirmation effect and misinformation effect(investigator reinforcing the victim’s choice by telling her she had identified the same person twice, information introduced after the event altered the victim’s memory)
- Own race bias (people less accurate at identifying other races)
- Source monitoring effect (she may have remembered the face from the photo lineup or other contexts rather than the actual crime)
- Unconscious transference (unconsciously transferred the memory of the Black man’s face from the photo lineup or other encounters to her memory of the crime)
- Photo bias(Repeated exposure to his photo may have made his face seem more familiar, increasing the likelihood of misidentification)
What is unconscious transference?
-Misidentifying a person in memory by mistakenly transferring them from one context to another.
