Chapter 7 - Long term memory: encoding and retrieval

Question 1

What are the three stages in the framework for the memory process? I.e. the processes we go to put stuff in and out of LTM (3)

Answer 1

-encoding
-storage
-retrieval

Question 2

What is encoding?

Answer 2

-process of taking in information (first step)

Question 3

What is storage? Is this a process? (2)

Answer 3

-successful formation of a memory trace/representation
-this is not a process

Question 4

What is retrieval?

Answer 4

-accessing information in memory

Question 5

If no encoding happens what else doesn’t happen?

Answer 5

-no storage and no retrieval

Question 6

What is a critical factor in whether or not we encode anything effectively?

Answer 6

-attention

Question 7

What is attention the gateway to?

Answer 7

-conscious processing

Question 8

What are the two types of repetition?

Answer 8

-massed repetition and distributed repetition

Question 9

What is massed repetition?

Answer 9

-exposing yourself to the same material all in one session (cramming)

Question 10

What is distributed repetition?

Answer 10

-when you expose yourself to information over time, in a spaced manner (studying two weeks before a test)

Question 11

What is the spacing effect?

Answer 11

-the benefit of distributed repetition over cramming (massed repetition)

Question 12

What are the two theories that explain the spacing effect? (2)

Answer 12

-deficient processing view
-encoding variability view

Question 13

What is the deficient processing view?

Answer 13

-When you cram, you typically engage with the material in a concentrated, time-limited manner. This often leads to a shallow level of processing, where the information is encoded only once or in a limited context. As a result, the memory trace created is not very strong or rich, making it easier to forget.
Multiple Encodings in Spaced Repetition: In contrast, spaced repetition involves revisiting the material multiple times over an extended period. Each time you encounter the information, you create a new encoding, which can involve different contexts, emotional states, or perspectives. This multiplicity strengthens the memory trace and makes it more resilient to forgetting.

Question 14

What is the encoding variability view?

Answer 14

-In massed repetition (or cramming), the same material is presented in a short, concentrated timeframe. This results in a single or very limited range of encoding contexts. Because there’s little variability, the brain forms a memory representation that is less distinct and can be harder to retrieve later. The lack of context makes it difficult to discriminate between similar memories, which can lead to confusion or forgetting.

Question 15

What are the two types of rehearsal? (2)

Answer 15

-maintenance
-elaborative

Question 16

What is rehearsal?

Answer 16

-how stimuli are thought about internally

Question 17

What is maintenance rehearsal? Where does it keep memory? (2)

Answer 17

-repeating info over and over again until you use it (a phone #)
-maintains it in STM but does not transfer it to LTM

Question 18

What is elaborative rehearsal? Where does this info go? (2)

Answer 18

-thinking about the meaning of an item or connecting it to something that you already know
-transfers info to LTM

Question 19

Describe Craig and Watkins the p checking test. What were the results (2)

Answer 19

-the participants had words read to them and had to repeat the words starting with a p until the next word, using maintenance rehearsal
-however, they couldn’t remember the words they did more any better than those they said less

Question 20

Hyde and Jenkins researched the effectiveness of elaborative rehearsal. Describe this.

Answer 20

-asked them if the word ends in e or how many letters are in it and to rate the pleasantness of the word
-got them to list all of the words they could remember
-the word that they were asked to rate the pleasantness of were remembered better

Question 21

What is an incidental learning condition?

Answer 21

-participants were not told they would need to recall words after the research

Question 22

What is the intentional learning conditions?

Answer 22

-told at the beginning they had to remember words

Question 23

Did incidental vs. intentional conditions make a difference in words remembered?

Answer 23

-no

Question 24

Is there any benefit for memory from maintenance rehearsal? (2)

Answer 24

-depends on the retrieval task
-small benefit for recognition tasks

Question 25

What are recall tasks?

Answer 25

-short answer, no hints you have to remember

Question 26

What are recognition tasks?

Answer 26

-multiple choice, hints are available

Question 27

What are the similarities between maintenance and elaborative rehearsal?

Answer 27

-both involve mental repetition of items, improve memory and lead to encoding

Question 28

What did Craig and Lockhart say about the deepness of information? Describe the three depths (2)

Answer 28

-the deeper the information is processed the greater the likelihood it will be remembered
-deep (meaning), medium (rhyming) and shallow (upper or lower case)

Question 29

What is distinctiveness or the von Restorff phenomenon?

Answer 29

-sticking out like a sore thumb, tendency for an item that stands out from its peers to be remembered better than more uniform items.

Question 30

How is the level of processing theory have a circular argument for why it works?

Answer 30

-you have better memory performance because you processed something more deeply but vice versa is true too making it circular

Question 31

Does forming visual images improve encoding?

Answer 31

-yes

Question 32

What was the paired-associated learning research? Results? (2)

Answer 32

-two groups; one would silently repeat the word pair list (lets say boat and tree). Group two were told to make a visual image of the two words interacting
Results: image group could recall 2x as many words

Question 33

Describe the dual code theory?

Answer 33

-people understand and remember information better when it is presented using both visual and verbal elements.

Question 34

What is the self-referent effect?

Answer 34

-memory is better if you relate a word to yourself, it is deeper than deep encoding

Question 35

What is the generation effect?

Answer 35

-if you can generate information it enhances learning and retention

Question 36

If you organize words or ideas into categories, will you remember them better?

Answer 36

-yes, its a retrieval cue

Question 37

What was the study by Brantford and Johnson?

Answer 37

-same as in class where you read the confusing story and then saw a picture, the group that saw the picture first out performed the other groups

Question 38

What is retrieval?

Answer 38

-transferring information from LTM back into working memory

Question 39

Most of our failures of memory are what?

Answer 39

-failures of retrieval

Question 40

What is availability?

Answer 40

-the presence of stored information

Question 41

What is accessibility?

Answer 41

-the degree to which we can gain access to available information

Question 42

Describe the study by Roediger and Karpicke about testing vs. re-reading. (2)

Answer 42

-does testing or re-reading result in a stronger memory trace?
-people that were tested did better on remembering the stuff they learned later on

Question 43

What are retrieval cues?

Answer 43

-cues that he;p a person remember information stored in memory

Question 44

What are some retrieval cues? (4)

Answer 44

-objects related to the information (drive by the store)
-an environment related
-a word related to the information
-an emotion related to a memory (smell of chocolate chip)

Question 45

When are retrieval cues more effective? (3)

Answer 45

-when you categorize things
-when you create the retrieval cue
-when you put yourself in the same environment as when you were memorizing something

Question 46

What is the encoding specificity principle?

Answer 46

-it suggests that when you’re encoding information you’re also encoding contextual information as well, which is why the study where you studied under water and retrieved under water people did better as it will give you cues

Question 47

Describe how our internal state relates to retrieval cues.

Answer 47

-people showed better memory if they are in similar moods when they encoded the information and retrieved it

Question 48

What is the transfer appropriate processing? (2)

Answer 48

-focuses on how you’re asked to retrieve information
-to get maximum memory, the encoding process must align with the retrieval process

Question 49

Describe the study by Morris et al., which looked at rhyming and semantic retrieval.

Answer 49

-looked at rhyming vs. semantic retrieval and found people remember better when you were given say a rhyming one (eagle and legal) and then asked again via rhyming.

Question 50

Contrast Levels of processing and transfer-appropriate processing.

Answer 50

Levels of processing: the deeper we process, the better we remember
TAP: both conditions, semantic and phonological, create durable memory traces but containing different info and so must be asked to retrieve it the same way to remember it well

Question 51

What is consolidation?

Answer 51

-how we take new learning/memory, which is fragile, and put it in a more stable state in memory

Question 52

What is retrograde amnesia?

Answer 52

-loss of memory around the past before the trauma

Question 53

What is anterograde amnesia?

Answer 53

-cannot form new memories

Question 54

Describe the study on consolidation and sleep. (2)

Answer 54

-they had to learn pairs of words in German and English and then half of them went to sleep 3 hours later and half didn’t
-the group that stayed awake lost 16% and the group that went to sleep lost 0.5%

Question 55

Why does sleep help with consolidation? (2)

Answer 55

-reduces environmental interference, you don’t have anything back to back that you’re focusing on (think of how hard it is to remember the material of one class after going to another class right after)
-hippocampus consolidates memory

Question 56

What memories are more likely to be consolidated during sleep?

Answer 56

-our memory is better for things we know we will be tested on

Question 57

What is reconsolidation?

Answer 57

-process that occurs when a memory is reactivated, similar to consolidation but more rapid

Question 58

Describe the study with the rats that look at if memories are ever permanent. Describe the objective and then the two studies under this study. (3)

Answer 58

Objective: To see if blocking memory consolidation or reconsolidation could prevent fear responses.

First Study: Blocking Consolidation
-Rats hear a tone, then receive a shock, causing fear.
-They are immediately injected with an antibiotic to block consolidation.
-Result: Later, the rats don’t respond with fear to the tone, as the memory didn’t consolidate.

Second Study: Blocking Reconsolidation
-Rats learn to associate a tone with a shock, creating a fear response.
-Tone is played again, rats show fear, and then they are injected with the antibiotic to block reconsolidation.
-On Day 3, rats don’t freeze at the tone, as the memory was reconsolidated without fear.

Question 59

Reactivation does what? Reconsolidation becomes what? (2)

Answer 59

-reactivation makes the memory more fragile
-reconsolidation causes the memory to become more stable

Question 60

What drug did they inject people with PTSD to break the association between the memory and the fear?

Answer 60

-propranolol