CHAPTER 8 1975-1988

Question 1

what was the political state of AUS in the mid 70s?

Answer 1

Gough Whitlam’s early dismissal by the Governor-General on the 11th of November 1975 ended in controversy and the following Fraser government was a lot more conservative but the new social movements continued to be created however optimism was dented by high unemployment + inflation, changes in Australia’s ethnic composition with the arrival of refugees from Vietnam + renewal of Cold War rivalries in the late 70s.

Question 2

what was the state of Indigenous people in the mid 70s?

Answer 2

in the 1980s, Eddie Mabo and fellow Islanders from Mer in the Torres Strait began court proceedings to gain native title over their traditional lands, a process that took years during the 1980s. The year 1988 marked the bicentennial of British colonisation and though most Australians celebrated this national moment, First Nations peoples protested, highlighting their continual marginalisation and the devastation that colonisation had brought to them

Question 3

what was the state of women in the mid 70s?

Answer 3

women continued to fight for equality + workplace rights which were further enabled once BOB HAWKE led federal Labor to victory in 1983 and introduced new workplace legislation. The Hawke government can be credited for their pursuit of a reconciliation of the labour movement and business through the Accord, to stabilise inflation + provide a social wage in return for less industrial action and more restrained pay increases

Question 4

what was the state of queer people in the mid 70s?

Answer 4

The gay liberation movement marched out of the closet and into the streets of Sydney, clashing with police at the 1st Mardi Gras in 1978. Attitudes were hard to shift but the HIV/AIDS pandemic that emerged in the 1980s forced the government and society to reconsider old prejudices whilst mobilising to contain a public health crisis

Question 5

what was the CAUSE of Whitlam’s dismissal?

Answer 5

Gough Whitlam lacked strength in the Senate as the Australian Labor Party failed to hold majority. an attempt to resolve this with a double-dissolution election in 1974 failed to make the ALP a majority. the government grappled with the end of the long post-war boom + an economy facing the pressures of high unemployment, stagnant growth and inflation. in OCTOBER 1975, the Liberal Opposition leader, Malcolm Fraser, blocked financial supply in the Senate, paralysing the government and creating a constitutional crisis. this finally prompted in controversial circumstances, the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr to sack Whitlam on the 11th of NOVEMBER 1975 and install Fraser as a caretake PM until an election could be held

Question 6

what was the aftermath of Whitlam’s abrupt dismissal?

Answer 6

Whitlam was infuriated and famously said on the steps of Parliament, “well may we say ‘God Save the Queen’ because nothing will save the Governor-General” as he asked his supporters to “maintain your rage and enthusiasm through the campaign for the election.” Despite the anger of many Labor supporters, the ensuing election resulted in a landslide win for Fraser and the Liberal- National Country Party coalition, giving them control of both Houses of Parliament. Whitlam opposed the 1977 election but again suffered a strong defeat.

Question 7

Historian perspective on Whitlam’s legacy?

Answer 7

Whitlam’s legacy reverberated for decades as historian Stuart Macintyre noted that Whitlam was “the last national leader to follow his convictions regardless of consequence”

Question 8

what was the Racial Discrimination Act 1975?

Answer 8

it was one of the most enduring legacies of the Whitlam government and it acted as the basis for outlawing all forms of racial discrimination. the Act used conciliation as the basis for dealing with compaints and did not contain criminal actions however it did help to mould the justice system in a way that would prove extremely influential during the fight for land rights including during the long process of the Mabo decision. more broadly, the Act aimed to change community attitudes about race and racism. the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 provided an avenue for individuals who experienced discrimination to seek support + provided a template for future legislation on how to address discrimination on the basis of gender + sexuality

Question 9

what group was the Racial Discrimination Act 1975

Answer 9

While directed primarily at discrimination faced by First Nations peoples, such as the forms of segregation exposed by the 1965 Freedom Ride, it also encompassed the shift towards a multicultural AUS and the end of the White Australia Policy, another legacy of the Whitlam government

Question 10

what is a historian’s perspective on the Racial Discrimination Act 1975?

Answer 10

Historian Richard Broome noted that “over the years, it had proved of great value, symbolically and in real terms”

Question 11

what were the issues surrounding this second wave of feminism?

Answer 11

The women’s and gay liberation movements continued to campaign for rights in this period and challenge social attitudes in AUS. notably, Elizabeth Reid acted as Gough Whitlam’s advisor on women’s affairs and presided over events to celebrate the International Women’s Year in 1975 (she resigned in late 1975) and additionally in the ‘Women in Politics’ conference in Canberra, Whitlam’s opening speech was interrupted by protests from Aboriginal women who accused the women’s movement of excluding the concerns of First Nations women

Question 12

what was the 1st Mardi Gras in 1978 in Sydney?

Answer 12

The gay liberation movement aimed beyond the decriminalisation and tolerance of homosexuality, to a broader community acceptance which is observed through the creation of Mardi Gras which acts as a day filled with protests that ended in a night parade held in response to a call to action by the American-based Gay Freedom Day Committee. the day was chosen due it it being the anniversary of the 1969 Stonewall riots in New York which marked an international Gay Solidarity Day. The parade became the basis for the ongoing Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras celebrations to this day

Question 13

what were the complications of the 1st Mardi Gras in 1978 in Sydney?

Answer 13

problems arose at 11pm when the parade confronted a police barricade at Hyde Park which was an intense police response which resulted in 53 participants being arrested + some individuals being violently beaten. fortunately, police tactics backfired as there was sympathetic media coverage which allowed for all changes to be dropped

“heavy-handed police response.” -> (Pratt et al.)

Question 14

what was the EFFECT of the 1st Mardi Gras in 1978 in Sydney?

Answer 14

the large public protest helped propel changes to NSW laws concerning the ‘Summary Offences Act 1979’ and the decriminalising of homosexual acts in NSW in 1983

Question 15

activist recount (primary source) of the 1st Mardi Gras in 1978 in Sydney?

Answer 15

Activist Rick Dowdle recalled that “we were like sheep herded into a pen. The police picked up people randomly and threw them head first into paddy wagons.”

Question 16

what was the impact of the return of Labor + political state of AUS with the Fraser government?

Answer 16

Compared to the frantic pace of reforms of the Whitlam years, the ensuing 8 years of the Fraser Liberal-National Country Party Coalition government’s program was much more conservative. The Fraser government passed Whitlam’s Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) bill in 1976 with amendments favouring the mining and pastoral industries. Fraser brought a Minister for Women’s Affairs into the outer ministry. He supported multiculturalism which is observed by him founding the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) to provide television and radio services in migrant languages in 1978. The less favourable economic conditions that challenged the Whitlam government similarly posed a challenge to the Fraser government with inflation remaining stubbornly around the 10% mark by 1980
The combination of high inflation and slow economic growth experienced across developed economies globally was termed ‘stagflation’. Although Fraser won the elections of 1977 and 1980, he and his treasurer, John Howard, had few economic answers

Question 17

what was the effect of the Hawke government and their contribution to the creation of the Accord?

Answer 17

In 1983, the popular Labor leader and former head of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU), Bob Hawke, won a great victory in the Federal election. Hawke and his new treasurer, Paul Keating, implemented significant reforms to the Australian economy including floating the Australian dollar and dismantling the protectionist policies that had guided Australian economic policy since Federation. The fact that a Labor government achieved such reforms and countered inflation can be accredited to Hawke and Keating’s Prices and Income Accord (more widely known as the Accord) which developed alongside the trade union movement

Question 18

what was the Accord?

Answer 18

the Accord underwent several iterations during the Hawke-Keating period, replacing real wage increases for an increase in the social wage which propelled the introduction of Medicare and superannuation. The Accord was assisted by the influence of the ACTU secretary Bill Kelty who journalised George Megalogenis labelled as the “third most important member of the government [even though he] was not in parliament.” The Accord effectively facilitated a more accessible/ easier industrial relations environment for the government to enact its reform agenda, with the no. of working days lost to strike action falling dramatically over the first 2 years of the Hawke government which highlights the better working conditions/quality during his leadership

Question 19

what were TRANSFORMATIONS - ideas towards Aboriginal identity + sovereignty?

Answer 19

The Whitlam era provided both tangible and symbolic outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities
The creation of a Minister for Aboriginal Affairs, recognition of land rights in the NT, formation of and an elected consultative body + the National Consultative Committee were all outcomes of the Labor government between 1972 and 1975. However as important as these gains were issues remained such as their inability to possess the right to self-determination and land rights outside of the Northern Territory
State governments in QLD + WA took steps to limit any potential for land rights in their jurisdictions

Question 20

what were the limitations of these transformation for Indigenous people in the 60s/70s?

Answer 20

The Fraser government did not push an active agenda but did maintain a renamed National Aboriginal Conference (NAC) in an advisory capacity. It emphasised self-management over self-determination through projects like the Community Development Employment Program (CDEP) which was introduced in 1977. Frustrations with the lack of movement on land rights and the state of Aboriginal affairs prompted the NAC to call for a treaty in 1979, a process where they adopted the Yolngu work ‘makarrata’ which describes the process of reconciliation. Unfortunately, these demands were unsuccessful in creating change. Demands for sovereignty and land rights remained the core issues of the First Nations people

Question 21

historian perspective on the attempted 1979 treaty?

Answer 21

While these demands were unsuccessful in creating changes as historian Julie Fenley argues that “these calls for a treaty or makarrata enabled people to demand greater independence and power and deepened their understanding of Indigenous people’s relationship with the Australian state”

Question 22

what were the demands of EDDIE MABO?

Answer 22

Koiki ‘Eddie’ Mabo, a Torres Strait Islander working in Townsville as a gardener at James Cook University, started a campaign for land rights on his home island on Mer/ Murray Island which was inspired in part by a conversation with historians Henry Reynolds + Noel Loos.

Question 23

what was the shift in historians perspectives towards Indigenous people and their land rights?

Answer 23

Historian Henry Reynolds’ work and that of others during the 1980s created the new field of Aboriginal history, addressing the period anthropologist William Stanner referenced as the “great Australian silence” in his 1968 ABC Boyer Lecture. In the 1980s more historians began to criticise the notion that prior to 1788 Australia had been terra nullius

Question 24

who were some prominent individuals in the fight for racial equality + acceptance?

Answer 24

Indigenous commentators like poets Roberta Sykes and Oodgeroo Noonuccal, playwright Kevin Gilbert, and lawyers and intellectuals such as Pat O’Shane, Paul Coe, Patrick and Mick Dodson, and Gary Foley all argued for Indigenous sovereignty, land rights and greater respect for First Nations cultures by wider Australia

Question 25

what was the divide in the women's liberation movement - opposing views which led to separation in movements that further prevented transformations?

Answer 25

However, the feminist movement was split by different goals and thinking and “by the early 1980s women’s liberation had clearly fractured along ideological lines” (Pratt et al.). Political scientist Verity Burgmann identified 3 main groups - liberal + radical + socialist feminism however there were many overlaps in the members and goals of this movement

Question 26

what were the aims of liberal feminism?

Answer 26

liberal feminism primarily demands for reforms, working within the system and was associated with groups like the Women's Electoral Lobby. this would involve prominent figures like Zelda D'Aprano

Question 27

what were the aims of socialist feminism?

Answer 27

Socialist feminists believed that the capitalist system was the source of female oppression. The women’s liberation movement primarily involved radical and social feminists

Question 28

what were the aims of radical feminism?

Answer 28

Radical feminists believed that the source of all oppression was the structure of patriarchal society -> hence they did not want to work within the system

Question 29

what is an example of a feminist protest?

Answer 29

The Women Against Rape in War Collective aimed to disrupt Anzac Day marches + ceremonies in 1981 by attempting to lay a wreath in commemoration of all the women who were raped in wars. this event can be credited for gaining media attention but it acts an an example of feminist activism which FAILED to represent the concerns of the above groups -> liberal feminists

Question 30

what was OPPOSITION to feminist movements/reforms?

Answer 30

backlash grew against the women's movement from conservatives. an Australian branch of the British Christian advocacy group 'Festival of Light' began in 1972 + rallied against efforts to liberalise abortion laws. In 1975, the Women's Action Alliance was formed + the group 'Women Who Want to Be Women' was formed in 1979 by Babette Francis. the latter group became the Endeavor Forum. these anti-feminist groups argued in favour of traditional roles for women within the domestic sphere + against liberalised divorce laws, access to contraception and affirmative action policies. these anti-feminist groups also influenced political parties in resistance to initiatives in these areas on both on the conservative side in the Coalition and among the socially conservative Labor members.

Question 31

historian perspective on the OPPOSING societal views on the women's liberation movement?

Answer 31

Historian Michelle Arrow observed that “crucially [the anti-feminist women’s groups] used the policy machinery that had been established by feminist activists in order to try to dismantle it”

Question 32

ideas surrounding sexuality in the 70s-80s?

Answer 32

around 1980, important movements emerged aiming to allow for greater acceptance for diverse sexualities. while conservative attitudes towards homosexuality were still present (homophobia), gay + lesbian activists achieved legal changes and created more visible communities in larger metropolitan centres like Sydney and to a lesser extent Melbourne.

Question 33

what was an important legal reform for the queer community in the 80s?

Answer 33

VIC passed a bill decriminalising homosexual acts in DEC 1980, following the lead of SA and ACT. The NT + NSW soon followed with the NT decriminalising male acts of homosexuality in 1983 and NSW in 1984. These legal reforms can be partially attributed to the efforts of queer activists to increase awareness + visibility of the LGBTQIA+ community. At the opposite extreme, Queensland’s amendments to the Liquor Act 1985 sought to add the serving of alcohol ‘drug dealers, sexual perverts or deviants, child molesters’ as groups for forfeiting a liquor licence (this amendment was perceived as an attack on homosexuals)

Question 34

what was the efforts of activists in this period?

Answer 34

Gay activist Dennis Altman reflected that the late 70s became a period where homosexual themes and the visibility of diverse sexualities became more prominent in the films, novels and thereate of the period. Dennis Altman further noted that “one of the greatest barriers to full acceptance was that few people who were not themselves homosexual saw the issue as serious”

Question 35

what were attitudes that affected the gay movement?

Answer 35

Discrimination in the workplace became a key issue for campaigners as many were forced to live a dual life, hiding their sexual identity from their job. Attitudes towards homosexuality (primarily negative) assumed greater prominence as the HIV/AIDS pandemic hit AUS in the mid 1980s

Question 36

what was the controversy surrounding Gough Whitlam's dismissal for the varying political group's supporters?

Answer 36

Opinions on the validity of Kerr’s decision as Governor-General reflected opinions on the Whitlam government. Conservatives who perceived Whitlam's government as chaotic, wasteful with public finances + too left-wing believed his dismissal was a justified course of action for the Governor General. However extreme left wing individuals likened his dismissal as a coup, engineer by Malcom Fraser + John Kerr, who undermined a democratically elected government.

Question 37

historian perspectives + EVIDENCE on the views surrounding Whitlam's dismissal?

Answer 37

- Historian Stuart Macintyre argued that Australian democracy was strained by kerr’s failure to warn Whitlam, and that Fraser’s legitimacy was questioned/strained by the way in which he gained power - As to Whitlam on his own dismissal he stated that “for some he was a hero cut down in his prime; for others he was a dangerous opponent” - The Sydney Morning Herald on the day following the dismissal, ran a front-page editorial approving of the Governor-General’s actions and the Opposition’s right to block supply due to its “declining confidence in the [Labor] Government’s managerial competences [and] extravagant socialist aims.” - Melbourne’s ‘The Age’ while critical of the Whitlam government, offered a contrasting view in an editorial entitled “Sir John was wrong” calling the dismissal “a triumph of narrow legalism over common sense and popular feeling”

Question 38

what were the debate on land rights + treaty?

Answer 38

The issue of land rights and treaty formed a central part of the struggles for Indigenous peoples from the end of the Whitlam government through to the ascension of the Hawke government. notwithstanding, the progress of the Aboriginal Land Rights Act (Northern Territory) 1976 (IMPORTANT LEGISALATION!!) but the reality for Indigenous people outside the NT was that there was still not standing in law for them to make claims for native title. Bob Hawke and the Labor Party raised expectations after their election victory in 1983 to provide freehold title for Aboriginal land, controls over mining and access to mining royalties The pushback from mining and pastoral interests, led by Western Mining Corporation’s Hugh Morgan was ferocious and simultaneous there was immense pressure exerted by the ALP Premier of WA, Brian Burke. A television advertising campaign by the Western Australian Chamber of Mines in 1984 served as an effective scare campaign. The Hawke government retreated from its promises on land rights, offering a considerable more limited program, much to the anger of many Indigenous people

Question 39

Historians on the struggle to achieve land rights?

Answer 39

Historians Chesterman and Galligan observed that “[l]and rights, in both a symbolic and substantive sense, represent the most fundamental challenge that has ever faced Australia's legal system”

Question 40

what was done in the 70s-80s to better relations with Indigenous people?

Answer 40

Uluru was handed back to its traditional owners in 1985 but this did little to alleviate the sense of betrayal felt by many activists for Indigenous land rights. Against this backdrop of the 1988 Bicentennial celebrations where British colonisation of NSW, debates and protests were sparked as many began to challenge the government narrative of ‘celebrating this nation’. there was an estimated 40,000 people who marched in recognition of land rights, treatment + conditions under which First Nations people lived. As part of the Bicentennial celebrations, the PM Bob Hawke visited the Barunga festival in the NT where he was presented with a statement of bark, the Barunga Statement which called for the recognition of land rights, self-determination and the enactment of customary law to guide Aboriginal affairs Hawke responded enthusiastically, promising a treaty between Australia and Indigenous peoples by 1990 however this promise went unfulfilled

Question 41

who was Susan Ryan - Hawke government and the better inclusion of women as politicians?

Answer 41

Susan Ryan acted as the senator for the ACT since 1975 and a member of the 1983 Hawke government. She was the 1st Labor cabinet member and marked a turning point in Australian politics with the further inclusion of women. Ryan had been involved with WEL prior to her election and entered Cabinet in 1983 as the Minister for Education and Youth Affairs + Minister assisting the PM for the Status of Women which was significant because previously men in the Fraser ministry had overseen the status of women. Furthermore the Hawke government reconstructed the Office of Women's Affairs + appointed Anne Summers as the head of the Office of the Status of Women

Question 42

what was the revolutionary piece of legislation for women (The Sex Discrimination Act 1984)?

Answer 42

was landmark legislation aiming to "eliminate, so far as it is possible, discrimination against persons on the ground of sex, marital status or pregnancy". (Sex Discrimination Legislation in Australia) this revolutionary piece of legislation attracted opposition from socially conservative members of parliament and groups like 'Women Who Want to be Women’ (WWWW). Amendments to the bill allowed for exceptions + restricted it to services offered to both men and women, protecting single-gender schools, religious bodies and clubs. The Act passed in May 1984 despite attempts by opponents to stall its passage and has been amended since to include restrictions on discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and intersex status

Question 43

Susan Ryan who was the Minister assisting the PM on the Status of Women in 1984 said:

Answer 43

"The Act coincided with a defining moment in Australia’s social development … Australia was finally poised for progressive social change. In 1983, those defenders of the status quo who wanted no social change, recognised their last opportunity to prevent progress, and they gave it all they had. The Sex Discrimination Bill became the emblematic action that if allowed to succeed would change Australian society forever." - On 2 June 1983 Ryan introduced the legislation to the senate. In 1981, while in Opposition, she had tested the parliamentary waters by introducing a private members bill for sex discrimination, which was adjourned without a vote.

Question 44

what were the opposing views to the Sex Discrimination Bill?

Answer 44

According to Susan Ryan, "sustained, vociferous and irrational opposition from powerful sectors of the community." However, the government did not control the senate, and some members, such as independent senator Brian Harradine, had objections. This forced the government to make changes. "The superannuation and insurance sectors were given a temporary exemption to allow them to catch up with new regulations" (National Museum Australia", and partial exemptions were provided for the church and the military.

Question 45

quote/EVIDENCE of the aims of the Sex Discrimination Act 1984

Answer 45

"to promote recognition and acceptance within the community of the principle of the equality of men and women"

Question 46

what was the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 followed by?

Answer 46

This Act was followed by the Affirmative Action (Equal Opportunity for Women) Act 1986 which required companies with more than 100 employees to develop action plans to increase female employment and submit annual reports on their programs

Question 47

impact of these feminist legal reforms (Sex Discrimination Act 1984 + Affirmative Action Act 1986)?

Answer 47

While these Acts did not close the gap in women’s pay, it reflected a greater acceptance of women working outside the home, accompanied by increases in spending on childcare by the Commonwealth

Question 48

what is the evidence of opposition to feminist reforms like the Sex Discrimination Act 1984?

Answer 48

According to LNP MP Micheal Hodgman, the Sex Discrimination Bill would be “an appalling piece of legislation” which was promoted by “arrogant minority pressure groups” to be “inflicted upon the people of Autsrralia by the Hawke socialist government”

Question 49

what did historians think of the Affirmative Action Act 1986?

Answer 49

However as historian Marilyn Lake notes “those who benefitted from the new employment and political opportunities were those best positioned to take advantage of them. Meanwhile, the majority of women workers remained segregated in low paid, insecure jobs in factories + offices and homes”

Question 50

what was the opposition by anti-feminist lobby groups towards these feminist legal reforms?

Answer 50

Anti-feminist lobby groups formed to campaign against the Sex Discrimination Bill, claiming, according to Thornton and Luker, to speak for the ‘silent majority’ of women who preferred to remain in the home

Question 51

data on the increase in job positions for women?

Answer 51

George Megalogenis observed that this ‘pink collar’ revolution of the 80s resulted in 2 out of every 3 of the 900,000 new jobs created between 1983 and 1993 going to women, but that most of these positions were part-time, paid less than men’s jobs and were in the service industries

Question 52

what was the EFFECT of the hiv/aids pandemic on LGBTIQA+ rights?

Answer 52

Amid the battles waged by queer activists to decriminalise homosexual sex in the states, the appearance of a deadly new virus and the response to it, shaped public attitudes towards homosexuality. The blood-borne retrovirus, Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which causes Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS) emerged in the early 80s . Although the virus was initially present in vulnerable groups like haemophiliacs and intravenous drug users, it spread widely through the gay community in the US and elsewhere which led to it being labelled a homosexual disease. Academic and gay liberation activist, Dennis Altman noted that this initial connection between AIDS and the gay community threatened many of the hard-won gains of the 1970s

Question 53

evidence of the attitudes towards gay people due to the HIV/AIDS pandemic?

Answer 53

The 1st Australian diagnosis occurred in 1982 and the initial reactions and alarmist media coverage spanked a homophobic backlash against the ‘gay plague’ (Pratt et al.)

Question 54

what were the homophobic + opposing views shared by some towards the homosexual community?

Answer 54

Individuals like conservative NSW Christian politician the Reverend Fred Nike spoke out against what they framed as ‘deviant’ behaviours and called for legal restrictions on the homosexual community

Question 55

what was the commendable response to the AIDS/HIV pandemic which prevented the achievements made by the queer community to be revoked?

Answer 55

a mature and level-headed public response, led by Bob Hawke’s Health Minister, Neal Blewett, reversed this initial ignorance as Commonwealth, state + territory health departments and the homosexual community aimed to destigmatise the disease, educate the public and engage in evidence-based public policy. The gay community was consulted, however this was controversial to an extent in the medical community, and programs such as needle exchangers, blood screening and the promotion of safe sex through the use of condoms which helped change behaviours and bring the disease under control. Media campaigns like the 1987’s controversial ‘Grim Reaper’ television advertisements framed the issue as a threat to the broader community not just homosexuals. Rather than setting back the movement “a new understanding of gay sexuality emerged…[and] in the process, AIDS increased the visibility and cohesion of the gay community.” (Power, Profit and Protest: Australian social movements and globalisation)

Question 56

what was the positives of the HIV/AIDS pandemic?

Answer 56

The process of decriminalising homosexual acts, rather than stalling, continued in QLD + WA with the law changing in 1990. Amid the tragic loss of lives to HIV/AIDS, the successful approach of AUS to the virus, the incorporation of the gay community as a part o the response and changing social attitudes mean that, which prejudices + discrimination continued, in many ways the LGBTIQA+ cause emerged strengthened rather than weakened due to the pandemic unifying members of the queer community through their shared plight/challenges

Question 57

what was the CAUSE of the beginning of the Mabo case?

Answer 57

in 1982, Edward Koiki Mabo and 4 other men from Mer in the Torres Strait launched a legal case in the High Court against the state of QLD, claiming ownership over Mer/Murray island + other islands in the Torres Strait as their traditional lands. The conservative National Party government of Joh Bjelke-Petersen attempted to suppress this attempt by passing the ‘Queensland Coast Declaratory Act 1985,’ which stated that annexation of the islands by the colony of QLD in 1879 had extinguished/ relinquished native title. this claim would be argued as Mabo 1 and in 1989 the High Court ruled the Act invalid because it was in contravention of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975.

Question 58

what was the EFFECT of the beginning of the Mabo case?

Answer 58

This ruling represented a shift in legal precedent regarding the powers of Australian governments and set the stage for the original case to proceed to the High Court, a process that would take a further 3 years. Therefore, while demands for land rights were largely unfulfilled in this period, there were important developments occurring that would lead to significant change

Question 59

historians perspectives on the beginning of the Mabo case?

Answer 59

This decision had significant repercussions as historians Chesterman + Galligan observed that “any governmental actions that might have extinguished native title but that was done after the Racial Discrimination Act came into force, had the potential to be invalid on the basis that it was racially discriminatory

Question 60

what was the status of Indigenous people towards the end of the 1980s?

Answer 60

By the end of the 1980s, it was clear that despite gains in civil rights + increases to funding provided by the Commonwealth, First Nations peoples still faced considerable challenges as Aboriginal deaths in custody were highlighted by the death of teenager John Pat in Roebourne in the Pilbara region of WA in 1983 where his + other deaths revealed over-policing and unequal justice for Indigenous people. DATA: By 1988, Indigenous people were 29 times more likely to be in police custody than the non- Indigenous population First Nations’ outrage led to the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC) in late 1987. The Commission's hearings released daily pieces of disturbing evidence to the public during the bicentenary year and the final report of April 1991 made 339 recommendations for implementation

Question 61

DATA on the status of First Nations people towards the end of the 1980s?

Answer 61

By 1988, Indigenous people were 29 times more likely to be in police custody than the non- Indigenous population First Nations’ outrage led to the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody (RCIADIC) in late 1987

Question 62

what were the advancement of women's rights by 1988?

Answer 62

rights for women were strengthened between 1975 and 1988 and women's participation in the workforce + higher education continued to rise. the dependence on supportive governments for reforms in the women's liberation movement were highlighted through the Fraser government which was not proactive over feminine issues which can be observed through the role of a Minister which assisted the PM in Women’s Affairs being maintained but the office was held by a man, despite this the government can be commended for not reversing or erasing the reforms which already existed. Conversely, the Hawke Labor government accelerated change for women’s fights after 1983, as they acted on sex discrimination, equal opportunity + childcare

Question 63

data on the shift to more female involvement in the workforce?

Answer 63

- George Megalogenis notes that the transition from a ‘blue collar’ to ‘pink collar’ economy was occurring in the context of wider economic deregulation that saw a loss of full-time jobs in manufacturing which was replaced by lower-paid + part-time work in services dominated by women - Other evidence on wages from the Bureau of Statistics reveal the continued subordination of women as in JAN 1983 the weekly total earnings for men were $341 and for women $225.30. In FEB 1987, it was $445.30 for men + $291.10 for women and eventually in 1983 women’s total weekly earnings were 66% of men and in 1987 it had decreased rather than improved to be 65% of male weekly earnings - The ABS outlines that from 1982 to 1987 (within 5 years) the percentage change of females in the labour force was 2.7% - In August of 1966 there were was a 1,907 difference between the men and women who were employed whilst in August of 1986 there was a slight decrease in this difference which became 1,474

Question 64

what was the EFFECT of these reforms on women -> the issues which persisted to challenge women?

Answer 64

The entry of women in the workforce subsequently exposed to veles of sexual harrassment despite the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 making harassment unlawful it was difficult seek support/assistance This was demonstrated by a 1988 case where sexual harassment claims by a Sydney Doctor were found to be upheld by the Human Rights and Equal Opportunity Commission. However in his judgement, Justice Marcus Einfield ruled that the conduct was "mild if ridiculous" and within the expected life experiences of women, ruling that no damages were to be awarded

Question 65

what was Australia's political/economic state?

Answer 65

In 1988, the nation celebrated the Bicentennial of British colonisation, refashioning it into a nationalist celebration of Australia. Since the dismissal of the Whitlam government in 1975 there had been significant changes. Stagnation + recession had shifted to economic growth under Hawke Labor government reforms that aimed to dismantle the centralised wage fixing and tariff protections that had existed since federation which was enabled by Hawke and Keating harnessing the support of the union movement via the Accord.

Question 66

what was the TRANSFORMATIONS for women in this period?

Answer 66

women had a larger role in the workforce + higher education but the wage gap between men and women persisted and the division of household labour had not allowed for changes in the paid workforce. women were more prominent in the political sphere however they still only made up 24 of the members of the 2 Houses of Parliament after the 1987 election, 8 in the House of Representatives and 16 in the Senate.

Question 67

what was the TRANSFORMATIONS for queer people in this period?

Answer 67

For the gay + lesbian community, the HIV/AIDS crisis had prompted greater/broader awareness of homosexuality. While the pandemic elevated homophobia + opposition from socially conservative politicians and commentators, overall the status of members of the queer community in society were more visible + accepted than in 1975. On an individual level, the challenges of ‘coming out’ to friends/family, particularly for those is small towns/migrant communities, remained difficult and prejudice lingered. Decriminalisation in all states except TAS had occurred by the end of the decade but fight for rights + entitlement a a couple remained na issue for same-sex relationships

Question 68

what was the TRANSFORMATIONS for First Nations people in this period?

Answer 68

Socially the nation was more multicultural, less orientated culturally to Britain and more to the US. The period after the dismissal saw an increased involvement of First Nations peoples in the public service . The creation of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Commission in 1990 to replace the National Aboriginal Council provided an elected body both to advise on policy and to oversee budget delivery services. However, this limited form of self-determination still left Indigenous peoples without land rights/treaty + as the stories of the Royal Commission into Aboriginal Deaths in Custody demonstrated, they were still treated as second-class citizens who were over-represented in both the prison and poverty statistics

Question 69

what are the continuities between 1975-1988?

Answer 69

Indigenous people were still campaigning for recognition of native title and land rights. the trend of increased articulation by women in the workforce + higher education continued from the 70s. significant discrimination + social stigma continued for gay and lesbian Australians although campaigns for decriminalisation achieved success. partisan divisions that had opened up in the late 70s between Labor and the Coalition on land rights, policy towards Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and women’s rights continued to grow.

Question 70

what are the changes between 1975-1988?

Answer 70

the passing of the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 which outlawed all forms of racial discrimination shifting Australia towards multiculturalism. homosexual acts were decriminalised, beginning in SA in 1975. the passing of the Sex Discrimination Act 1984 made it illegal to discriminate on the grounds of sex, marital status or pregnancy. substantially more women were in the paid workforce and accessing higher education. The HIV/AIDS pandemic strengthened the gay rights cause due to the government’s response and inclusion of the gay community due to its handling of the disease.

Question 71

Journalist Tony Stephens on the achievements of the Whitlam government (The Age, 2014)

Answer 71

“Pensions were increased and indexed and Medibank established as Australia’s first national health insurance system.”

Question 72

OPPOSING IDEAS ON THE EFFICACY OF THE WHITLAM GOVERNMENT -> ACADEMIC Geoffrey ROBINSON

Answer 72

“The experience of the Whitlam government failed to meet the expectations of its victory in 1972.” “Labor demonstrated the limits of social democratic reformism"

Question 73

Racial Discrimination Act 1975 quote

Answer 73

“It is unlawful for a person to do any act involving a distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race.”

Question 74

Historian Michelle Arrow (2019) on the 1st Mardi Gras parade:

Answer 74

“The Mardi Gras opened up a new, more confrontational phase in gay and lesbian politics”

Question 75

Aboriginal activist Gary Foley on the Hawke government’s approach to land rights:

Answer 75

“They decided that the interests of Aboriginal people could be sold down the drain”

Question 76

Historian Marilyn Lake identifies this reformist approach as ‘state feminism’:

Answer 76

"state feminism’”

Question 77

Historian Michelle Arrow on the anti-feminist women's groups:

Answer 77

“crucially [the anti-feminist women’s groups] used the policy machinery that had been established by feminist activists in order to try to dismantle it”

Question 78

Historian Marilyn Lake notes on

Answer 78

“Those who benefitted from the new employment and political opportunities were those best positioned to take advantage of them. Meanwhile, the majority of women workers remained segregated in low paid, insecure jobs in factories + offices + homes”

Question 79

Margaret Thornton & Trish Luker’s novel which outlines Micheal Hodgman’s (liberal member of party) intention to vote against the Bill:

Answer 79

"doctrinaire marxist-socialist precepts of contrived equality – defying even the laws of nature.”

Question 80

Anne Summers on the Act

Answer 80

“This law was the first in the world to outlaw sexual harassment.”

Question 81

David Menadue, HIV advocate

Answer 81

“The nastiness and homophobia that was directed at gay men was alarming, and could have been far worse, but for the intervention of one enlightened politician ... Neal Blewett.”

Question 82

Iola Matthews (one of the founders of the Women's Electoral Lobby) on Whitlam:

Answer 82

"Whitlam was the new Messiah."

Question 83

Iola Matthews (one of the founders of the Women's Electoral Lobby) on Whitlam's feminist reforms:

Answer 83

"federal funds were allocated for family planning, sex education and child care."

Question 84

Iola Matthews on the effect of the Australian Council of Trade Unions winning a case for 'equal pay for equal work" in 1969?

Answer 84

"only 18 per cent of women workers had benefited from"

Question 85

Whitlam + data on the 1972 equal pay decision

Answer 85

On the 15th of December 1972 the Conciliation and Arbitration Commission granted equal pay for work of equal value which led to a "30 per cent increase in women's wages" and Whitlam called this the "most striking and historically significant reform for women"

Question 86

what legislations occurred under the Hawke government?

Answer 86

Sex Discrimination Act 1984 + Affirmative Action Act 1986

Question 87

Iola Matthews on the poster slogan of WEL:

Answer 87

"think WEL before you vote", this shows that a greater awareness of women's issue is present + women's rights are becoming more prominent as it is observed to impact Australia's political sphere

Question 88

Australian writer, Donald Horne in 1964 quote:

Answer 88

Australia is a "lucky country run mainly by second-rate people"

Question 89

Historians Mark Peel and Christina Twomey on queer community reforms:

Answer 89

"gay men and lesbian women lived more openly than they had in the past"

Question 90

Historians Mark Peel and Christina Twomey on transformations for these groups:

Answer 90

"require legislative change for marginalised groups to achieve equality"

Question 91

Historians Mark Peel and Christina Twomey on transformations for women under Whitlam:

Answer 91

"introduced equal pay for women and passed legislation for no-fault divorce"

Question 92

Historians Mark Peel and Christina Twomey on Whitlam:

Answer 92

"one of Whitlam's ministers described the style as 'Government by tantrum'."

Question 93

Historians Mark Peel and Christina Twomey on Indigenous reforms - 1967 referendum:

Answer 93

"perform important symbolic work by including them in the Australian nation."

Question 94

example of transformative legislation for Indigenous people:

Answer 94

In 1966 the Arbitration Commission granted equal pay to Aboriginal pastoral workers

Question 95

quote from the Gurindji land rights petition 1967:

Answer 95

"we feel that morally the land is ours and should be returned to us."

Question 96

Historians Mark Peel and Christina Twomey on Indigenous reforms:

Answer 96

"land rights began to displace civil rights." concerns surrounding "self-determination, restitution and the socio-economic condition of Indigenous people"

Question 97

Elizabeth Reid, became the first Advisor on Women’s Affairs under the Whitlam government, emphasised the common views upon gender roles in the 1970s AUS?

Answer 97

“Men lead, a woman’s place is in the home”