CHAPTER 8 1975-1988 Flashcards
what was the political state of AUS in the mid 70s?
Gough Whitlam’s early dismissal by the Governor-General on the 11th of November 1975 ended in controversy and the following Fraser government was a lot more conservative but the new social movements continued to be created however optimism was dented by high unemployment + inflation, changes in Australia’s ethnic composition with the arrival of refugees from Vietnam + renewal of Cold War rivalries in the late 70s.
what was the state of Indigenous people in the mid 70s?
in the 1980s, Eddie Mabo and fellow Islanders from Mer in the Torres Strait began court proceedings to gain native title over their traditional lands, a process that took years during the 1980s. The year 1988 marked the bicentennial of British colonisation and though most Australians celebrated this national moment, First Nations peoples protested, highlighting their continual marginalisation and the devastation that colonisation had brought to them
what was the state of women in the mid 70s?
women continued to fight for equality + workplace rights which were further enabled once BOB HAWKE led federal Labor to victory in 1983 and introduced new workplace legislation. The Hawke government can be credited for their pursuit of a reconciliation of the labour movement and business through the Accord, to stabilise inflation + provide a social wage in return for less industrial action and more restrained pay increases
what was the state of queer people in the mid 70s?
The gay liberation movement marched out of the closet and into the streets of Sydney, clashing with police at the 1st Mardi Gras in 1978. Attitudes were hard to shift but the HIV/AIDS pandemic that emerged in the 1980s forced the government and society to reconsider old prejudices whilst mobilising to contain a public health crisis
what was the CAUSE of Whitlam’s dismissal?
Gough Whitlam lacked strength in the Senate as the Australian Labor Party failed to hold majority. an attempt to resolve this with a double-dissolution election in 1974 failed to make the ALP a majority. the government grappled with the end of the long post-war boom + an economy facing the pressures of high unemployment, stagnant growth and inflation. in OCTOBER 1975, the Liberal Opposition leader, Malcolm Fraser, blocked financial supply in the Senate, paralysing the government and creating a constitutional crisis. this finally prompted in controversial circumstances, the Governor-General, Sir John Kerr to sack Whitlam on the 11th of NOVEMBER 1975 and install Fraser as a caretake PM until an election could be held
what was the aftermath of Whitlam’s abrupt dismissal?
Whitlam was infuriated and famously said on the steps of Parliament, “well may we say ‘God Save the Queen’ because nothing will save the Governor-General” as he asked his supporters to “maintain your rage and enthusiasm through the campaign for the election.” Despite the anger of many Labor supporters, the ensuing election resulted in a landslide win for Fraser and the Liberal- National Country Party coalition, giving them control of both Houses of Parliament. Whitlam opposed the 1977 election but again suffered a strong defeat.
Historian perspective on Whitlam’s legacy?
Whitlam’s legacy reverberated for decades as historian Stuart Macintyre noted that Whitlam was “the last national leader to follow his convictions regardless of consequence”
what was the Racial Discrimination Act 1975?
it was one of the most enduring legacies of the Whitlam government and it acted as the basis for outlawing all forms of racial discrimination. the Act used conciliation as the basis for dealing with compaints and did not contain criminal actions however it did help to mould the justice system in a way that would prove extremely influential during the fight for land rights including during the long process of the Mabo decision. more broadly, the Act aimed to change community attitudes about race and racism. the Racial Discrimination Act 1975 provided an avenue for individuals who experienced discrimination to seek support + provided a template for future legislation on how to address discrimination on the basis of gender + sexuality
what group was the Racial Discrimination Act 1975
While directed primarily at discrimination faced by First Nations peoples, such as the forms of segregation exposed by the 1965 Freedom Ride, it also encompassed the shift towards a multicultural AUS and the end of the White Australia Policy, another legacy of the Whitlam government
what is a historian’s perspective on the Racial Discrimination Act 1975?
Historian Richard Broome noted that “over the years, it had proved of great value, symbolically and in real terms”
what were the issues surrounding this second wave of feminism?
The women’s and gay liberation movements continued to campaign for rights in this period and challenge social attitudes in AUS. notably, Elizabeth Reid acted as Gough Whitlam’s advisor on women’s affairs and presided over events to celebrate the International Women’s Year in 1975 (she resigned in late 1975) and additionally in the ‘Women in Politics’ conference in Canberra, Whitlam’s opening speech was interrupted by protests from Aboriginal women who accused the women’s movement of excluding the concerns of First Nations women
what was the 1st Mardi Gras in 1978 in Sydney?
The gay liberation movement aimed beyond the decriminalisation and tolerance of homosexuality, to a broader community acceptance which is observed through the creation of Mardi Gras which acts as a day filled with protests that ended in a night parade held in response to a call to action by the American-based Gay Freedom Day Committee. the day was chosen due it it being the anniversary of the 1969 Stonewall riots in New York which marked an international Gay Solidarity Day. The parade became the basis for the ongoing Sydney Gay and Lesbian Mardi Gras celebrations to this day
what were the complications of the 1st Mardi Gras in 1978 in Sydney?
problems arose at 11pm when the parade confronted a police barricade at Hyde Park which was an intense police response which resulted in 53 participants being arrested + some individuals being violently beaten. fortunately, police tactics backfired as there was sympathetic media coverage which allowed for all changes to be dropped
“heavy-handed police response.” -> (Pratt et al.)
what was the EFFECT of the 1st Mardi Gras in 1978 in Sydney?
the large public protest helped propel changes to NSW laws concerning the ‘Summary Offences Act 1979’ and the decriminalising of homosexual acts in NSW in 1983
activist recount (primary source) of the 1st Mardi Gras in 1978 in Sydney?
Activist Rick Dowdle recalled that “we were like sheep herded into a pen. The police picked up people randomly and threw them head first into paddy wagons.”
what was the impact of the return of Labor + political state of AUS with the Fraser government?
Compared to the frantic pace of reforms of the Whitlam years, the ensuing 8 years of the Fraser Liberal-National Country Party Coalition government’s program was much more conservative. The Fraser government passed Whitlam’s Aboriginal Land Rights (Northern Territory) bill in 1976 with amendments favouring the mining and pastoral industries. Fraser brought a Minister for Women’s Affairs into the outer ministry. He supported multiculturalism which is observed by him founding the Special Broadcasting Service (SBS) to provide television and radio services in migrant languages in 1978. The less favourable economic conditions that challenged the Whitlam government similarly posed a challenge to the Fraser government with inflation remaining stubbornly around the 10% mark by 1980
The combination of high inflation and slow economic growth experienced across developed economies globally was termed ‘stagflation’. Although Fraser won the elections of 1977 and 1980, he and his treasurer, John Howard, had few economic answers
what was the effect of the Hawke government and their contribution to the creation of the Accord?
In 1983, the popular Labor leader and former head of the Australian Council of Trade Unions (ACTU), Bob Hawke, won a great victory in the Federal election. Hawke and his new treasurer, Paul Keating, implemented significant reforms to the Australian economy including floating the Australian dollar and dismantling the protectionist policies that had guided Australian economic policy since Federation. The fact that a Labor government achieved such reforms and countered inflation can be accredited to Hawke and Keating’s Prices and Income Accord (more widely known as the Accord) which developed alongside the trade union movement
what was the Accord?
the Accord underwent several iterations during the Hawke-Keating period, replacing real wage increases for an increase in the social wage which propelled the introduction of Medicare and superannuation. The Accord was assisted by the influence of the ACTU secretary Bill Kelty who journalised George Megalogenis labelled as the “third most important member of the government [even though he] was not in parliament.” The Accord effectively facilitated a more accessible/ easier industrial relations environment for the government to enact its reform agenda, with the no. of working days lost to strike action falling dramatically over the first 2 years of the Hawke government which highlights the better working conditions/quality during his leadership
what were TRANSFORMATIONS - ideas towards Aboriginal identity + sovereignty?
The Whitlam era provided both tangible and symbolic outcomes for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander communities
The creation of a Minister for Aboriginal Affairs, recognition of land rights in the NT, formation of and an elected consultative body + the National Consultative Committee were all outcomes of the Labor government between 1972 and 1975. However as important as these gains were issues remained such as their inability to possess the right to self-determination and land rights outside of the Northern Territory
State governments in QLD + WA took steps to limit any potential for land rights in their jurisdictions
what were the limitations of these transformation for Indigenous people in the 60s/70s?
The Fraser government did not push an active agenda but did maintain a renamed National Aboriginal Conference (NAC) in an advisory capacity. It emphasised self-management over self-determination through projects like the Community Development Employment Program (CDEP) which was introduced in 1977. Frustrations with the lack of movement on land rights and the state of Aboriginal affairs prompted the NAC to call for a treaty in 1979, a process where they adopted the Yolngu work ‘makarrata’ which describes the process of reconciliation. Unfortunately, these demands were unsuccessful in creating change. Demands for sovereignty and land rights remained the core issues of the First Nations people
historian perspective on the attempted 1979 treaty?
While these demands were unsuccessful in creating changes as historian Julie Fenley argues that “these calls for a treaty or makarrata enabled people to demand greater independence and power and deepened their understanding of Indigenous people’s relationship with the Australian state”
what were the demands of EDDIE MABO?
Koiki ‘Eddie’ Mabo, a Torres Strait Islander working in Townsville as a gardener at James Cook University, started a campaign for land rights on his home island on Mer/ Murray Island which was inspired in part by a conversation with historians Henry Reynolds + Noel Loos.
what was the shift in historians perspectives towards Indigenous people and their land rights?
Historian Henry Reynolds’ work and that of others during the 1980s created the new field of Aboriginal history, addressing the period anthropologist William Stanner referenced as the “great Australian silence” in his 1968 ABC Boyer Lecture. In the 1980s more historians began to criticise the notion that prior to 1788 Australia had been terra nullius
who were some prominent individuals in the fight for racial equality + acceptance?
Indigenous commentators like poets Roberta Sykes and Oodgeroo Noonuccal, playwright Kevin Gilbert, and lawyers and intellectuals such as Pat O’Shane, Paul Coe, Patrick and Mick Dodson, and Gary Foley all argued for Indigenous sovereignty, land rights and greater respect for First Nations cultures by wider Australia
what was the divide in the women’s liberation movement - opposing views which led to separation in movements that further prevented transformations?
However, the feminist movement was split by different goals and thinking and “by the early 1980s women’s liberation had clearly fractured along ideological lines” (Pratt et al.). Political scientist Verity Burgmann identified 3 main groups - liberal + radical + socialist feminism however there were many overlaps in the members and goals of this movement
what were the aims of liberal feminism?
liberal feminism primarily demands for reforms, working within the system and was associated with groups like the Women’s Electoral Lobby. this would involve prominent figures like Zelda D’Aprano
what were the aims of socialist feminism?
Socialist feminists believed that the capitalist system was the source of female oppression. The women’s liberation movement primarily involved radical and social feminists
what were the aims of radical feminism?
Radical feminists believed that the source of all oppression was the structure of patriarchal society -> hence they did not want to work within the system
what is an example of a feminist protest?
The Women Against Rape in War Collective aimed to disrupt Anzac Day marches + ceremonies in 1981 by attempting to lay a wreath in commemoration of all the women who were raped in wars. this event can be credited for gaining media attention but it acts an an example of feminist activism which FAILED to represent the concerns of the above groups -> liberal feminists
what was OPPOSITION to feminist movements/reforms?
backlash grew against the women’s movement from conservatives. an Australian branch of the British Christian advocacy group ‘Festival of Light’ began in 1972 + rallied against efforts to liberalise abortion laws. In 1975, the Women’s Action Alliance was formed + the group ‘Women Who Want to Be Women’ was formed in 1979 by Babette Francis. the latter group became the Endeavor Forum. these anti-feminist groups argued in favour of traditional roles for women within the domestic sphere + against liberalised divorce laws, access to contraception and affirmative action policies. these anti-feminist groups also influenced political parties in resistance to initiatives in these areas on both on the conservative side in the Coalition and among the socially conservative Labor members.
historian perspective on the OPPOSING societal views on the women’s liberation movement?
Historian Michelle Arrow observed that “crucially [the anti-feminist women’s groups] used the policy machinery that had been established by feminist activists in order to try to dismantle it”
ideas surrounding sexuality in the 70s-80s?
around 1980, important movements emerged aiming to allow for greater acceptance for diverse sexualities. while conservative attitudes towards homosexuality were still present (homophobia), gay + lesbian activists achieved legal changes and created more visible communities in larger metropolitan centres like Sydney and to a lesser extent Melbourne.
what was an important legal reform for the queer community in the 80s?
VIC passed a bill decriminalising homosexual acts in DEC 1980, following the lead of SA and ACT. The NT + NSW soon followed with the NT decriminalising male acts of homosexuality in 1983 and NSW in 1984. These legal reforms can be partially attributed to the efforts of queer activists to increase awareness + visibility of the LGBTQIA+ community. At the opposite extreme, Queensland’s amendments to the Liquor Act 1985 sought to add the serving of alcohol ‘drug dealers, sexual perverts or deviants, child molesters’ as groups for forfeiting a liquor licence (this amendment was perceived as an attack on homosexuals)
what was the efforts of activists in this period?
Gay activist Dennis Altman reflected that the late 70s became a period where homosexual themes and the visibility of diverse sexualities became more prominent in the films, novels and thereate of the period. Dennis Altman further noted that “one of the greatest barriers to full acceptance was that few people who were not themselves homosexual saw the issue as serious”
what were attitudes that affected the gay movement?
Discrimination in the workplace became a key issue for campaigners as many were forced to live a dual life, hiding their sexual identity from their job. Attitudes towards homosexuality (primarily negative) assumed greater prominence as the HIV/AIDS pandemic hit AUS in the mid 1980s
what was the controversy surrounding Gough Whitlam’s dismissal for the varying political group’s supporters?
Opinions on the validity of Kerr’s decision as Governor-General reflected opinions on the Whitlam government. Conservatives who perceived Whitlam’s government as chaotic, wasteful with public finances + too left-wing believed his dismissal was a justified course of action for the Governor General. However extreme left wing individuals likened his dismissal as a coup, engineer by Malcom Fraser + John Kerr, who undermined a democratically elected government.
historian perspectives + EVIDENCE on the views surrounding Whitlam’s dismissal?
- Historian Stuart Macintyre argued that Australian democracy was strained by kerr’s failure to warn Whitlam, and that Fraser’s legitimacy was questioned/strained by the way in which he gained power
- As to Whitlam on his own dismissal he stated that “for some he was a hero cut down in his prime; for others he was a dangerous opponent”
- The Sydney Morning Herald on the day following the dismissal, ran a front-page editorial approving of the Governor-General’s actions and the Opposition’s right to block supply due to its “declining confidence in the [Labor] Government’s managerial competences [and] extravagant socialist aims.”
- Melbourne’s ‘The Age’ while critical of the Whitlam government, offered a contrasting view in an editorial entitled “Sir John was wrong” calling the dismissal “a triumph of narrow legalism over common sense and popular feeling”
what were the debate on land rights + treaty?
The issue of land rights and treaty formed a central part of the struggles for Indigenous peoples from the end of the Whitlam government through to the ascension of the Hawke government. notwithstanding, the progress of the Aboriginal Land Rights Act (Northern Territory) 1976 (IMPORTANT LEGISALATION!!) but the reality for Indigenous people outside the NT was that there was still not standing in law for them to make claims for native title. Bob Hawke and the Labor Party raised expectations after their election victory in 1983 to provide freehold title for Aboriginal land, controls over mining and access to mining royalties
The pushback from mining and pastoral interests, led by Western Mining Corporation’s Hugh Morgan was ferocious and simultaneous there was immense pressure exerted by the ALP Premier of WA, Brian Burke. A television advertising campaign by the Western Australian Chamber of Mines in 1984 served as an effective scare campaign. The Hawke government retreated from its promises on land rights, offering a considerable more limited program, much to the anger of many Indigenous people
